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Biomolecules > Carbohydrates > Flashcards

Carbohydrates Flashcards

1
Q

often referred to as sugars, are a class of organic compounds essential for life on Earth

A

carbohydrates

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2
Q

composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, often in a ratio of 1:2:1

A

carbohydrates

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3
Q

serve as a primary source of energy for organisms, but they also play crucial roles in structural support, cell signaling, and energy storage

A

carbohydrates

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4
Q

classification of carbohydrates (4)

A

monosaccharides
disaccharides
oligosaccharides
polysaccharides

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5
Q

Simple sugars with a single sugar unit. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

A

monosaccharides

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6
Q

example of monosaccharides

A

glucose
fructose
galactose

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7
Q

Two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic bond. Examples include sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose

A

disaccharides

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8
Q

examples of disaccharides

A

sucrose
lactose
maltose

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9
Q

sucrose is made up of

A

glucose and fructose

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10
Q

lactose is made up of

A

galactose and glucose

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11
Q

maltose is made up of

A

α-D-glucose units

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12
Q

Short chains of monosaccharides (typically 3-10 units).

A

oligosaccharides

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13
Q

complex carbohydrates composed of many monosaccharide units. Examples include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.

A

polysaccharides

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14
Q

polysaccharides example

A

starch
glycogen
cellulose
chitin

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15
Q

are often represented by their Fischer projection, a linear representation, or their Haworth projection, a cyclic representation

A

monosaccharides

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16
Q

restricts a three-dimensional molecule into two dimensions.

A

Fischer projection

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17
Q

what carbon atoms determine their stereoisomers (D- and L- forms)

A

chiral carbon atoms

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18
Q

a method used to show the 3D stereochemistry of cyclic sugars (or saccharides).

A

haworth projection

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19
Q

the first carbon atom in the ring, can exist in either α or β configurations

A

anomeric carbon

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20
Q

functions of carbohydrates

A

energy source
structural components
cell recognition

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21
Q

s the primary energy source for cells.

A

glucose

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22
Q

storage form of glucose in plants

A

starch

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23
Q

storage form of glucose in animals

A

glycogen

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24
Q

is a major component of plant cell walls, providing structural support.

A

cellulose

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25
Q

is found in the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans

A

chitins

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26
Q

which contain carbohydrate components, are involved in cell-cell recognition and communication.

A

glycoproteins
glycolipids

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27
Q

also play roles in energy storage, signaling, and immune function.

A

carbohydrates

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28
Q

A general test for carbohydrates

A

Molisch Test

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29
Q

Detects reducing sugars, which have a free aldehyde or ketone group.

A

Benedict’s Test

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30
Q

Specific for starch, which forms a blue-black complex with iodine

A

iodine test

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31
Q

Differentiates between ketoses and aldoses

A

Seliwanoff’s Test

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32
Q

Distinguishes between monosaccharides and disaccharides

A

Barfoed’s test

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33
Q

carbohydrates are brokendown through a series of metabolic pathways such as (3)

A

glycolysis
citric acid cycle
oxidative phosphorylation

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34
Q

A condition characterized by high blood sugar levels.

A

Diabetes Mellitus

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35
Q

Inability to digest lactose, a disaccharide found in milk.

A

Lactose Intolerance

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36
Q

Genetic disorders affecting glycogen metabolism

A

Glycogen storage disease

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37
Q

in plants, these polysaccharides have their monosaccharides joined together by alpha-linkages

A

starch

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38
Q

in these, the bonds between monosaccharides in these are joined by beta bond

A

fiber

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39
Q

a type of carbohydrate that doesn’t get digested in your small intestine. Instead, it ferments in your large intestine and feeds “good” gut

A

resistant starch

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40
Q

Carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion have what kind of glycemic index

A

high glycemix index

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41
Q

hormone synthesized in the pancreas, one of the body’s main tools for sugar management

A

insulin

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42
Q

the degree to which a unit of insulin lowers blood sugar

A

insulin sensitivity

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43
Q

is a cluster of conditions that occur together, increasing your risk of heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes

A

metabolic syndrome

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44
Q

are the most abundant biomolecules belonging to a class of organic compounds
found in living organisms on earth.

A

carbohydrates

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45
Q

Each year, more than 100 billion metric tons of CO2 and H2O are converted into cellulose and
other plant products due to

A

photosynthesis

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46
Q

Living matter is largely made of biomolecules consisting of water and complex polymers of (4)

A

amino acids
lipids
nucleotides
carbohydraets

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47
Q

are most special of them in that they remain associated with the three other
polymers mentioned

A

carbohydrates

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48
Q

carbohydrates + OH will turn into

A

alcohol

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49
Q

carbohydrates with amino acid polymers form what

A

glycoproteins

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50
Q

carbohydrates linked with lipids become what

A

glycolipids

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51
Q

carbohydrates are also present in what which are essentially polymers of D-ribose-phosphate and 2-deoxy-D-ribose phosphate in which purines and pyrimidines are attached at C-1 reducing position

A

DNA and RNA

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52
Q

example of purines

A

guanine
adenine

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53
Q

example of pyrimindines

A

cytosine
thymine
uracil

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54
Q

75% of the dry weight of the plant world is ____ in nature

A

carbohydrate

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55
Q

example of carbohydrates in plant world

A

cellulose
hemicellulose
lignin

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56
Q

is a biopolymer containing heterogeneous group of polysaccharides, which is constituted of monosaccharides including hexoses (glucose, mannose, and galactose), pentoses (xylose and arabinose), and small amount of other saccharides (rhamnose and fructose

A

hemicellulose

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57
Q

a biopolymer that binds cellulose and hemicellulose fibers and provides stiffness to plants.

A

lignin

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58
Q

s are polyhydroxylated aldehydes or ketones and their derivatives.

A

carbohydrates

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59
Q

Simple carbohydrates or the entire carbohydrate family may also be called

A

saccharides

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60
Q

In general, carbohydrates have the empirical formula

A

(CH2O)n

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61
Q
A
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62
Q

an endothermic reductive condensation of carbon
dioxide requiring light energy and the pigment chlorophyll.

A

photosynthesis

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63
Q

empirical formula of photosynthesis

A

◦ nCO2 + nH2O + energy CnH2nOn + nO2

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64
Q

, chains of
individual sugars.

A

monosaccharides

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65
Q

are a major source of metabolic energy, both for plants and for animals that
depend on plants for food.

A

carbohydrates

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66
Q

the more bonds, the more ___ to build

A

energy

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67
Q

biological breakdown of carbohydrates that supplies
the principal part of the energy that every organism needs for various processes.

A

combustion

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68
Q

act as the perfect fuel that enables
us to carry out our physical activities efficiently and effectively.

type of carbohydrates

A

starch
sugars

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69
Q

does wonder in keeping your bowel function going smooth.

A

fiber

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70
Q

aid in regulating blood glucose and also do good to our body by breaking
down fatty acids, thus preventing ketosis.

A

carbohydrates

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71
Q

metabolic state that occurs when your body burns fat for energy instead of glucose

A

ketosis

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72
Q

umans lack digestive enzymes capable of hydrolyzing (breaking apart) most _-glycosidic bonds

A

beta

73
Q

Linkages between sugars can occur through a ___linkage between the anomeric,
first carbon of sugar in either α or β configuration with any of a variety of hydroxyl
groups on the adjacent sugar.

A

glycoside

74
Q

Insoluble carbohydrate polymers serve as structural and protective elements in what structures of bacteria and plants

A

cell wall

75
Q

Insoluble carbohydrate polymers serve as structural and protective elements in what structures of animals

A

connective tissues

76
Q

Plant cell walls are complex arrangements of what polymers of carbohydrates

A

cellulose
hemicellulose
lignin

77
Q

is the primary
structural component of plants.

A

cellulose

78
Q

as polymers of derivatives of carbohydrates are of critical importance in
intercellular communication in organisms

A

glycosaminoglycans

79
Q

this ubiquitous class of ___ interacts with a wide variety of proteins,
including growth factors and chemokines, which regulate important physiological
processes

A

polyanions

80
Q

The presence of _____ on cell membranes and in the extracellular matrix
also has resulted in their exploitation by infectious pathogens to gain access and entry
into animal cells.

A

glycosaminoglycans

81
Q

More complex carbohydrate polymers covalently attached to proteins or lipids act as signals that determine the intracellular location or metabolic fate of these hybrid molecules, called

A

glycoconjugates

82
Q

compounds in biology that consist of carbohydrates linked to non-sugar molecules like proteins, peptides, and lipids

A

glycoconjugates

83
Q

act as receptors and integral membrane proteins in membranes,
cytoskeletal proteins in the cytoplasm, extracellular proteins such as antibodies,
hormones, collagen (found outside the cell), enzymes (RNase, DNase, lipases,
cholinesterase, phosphatase, pepsinogen, glycosyltransferases), etc.

A

glycoprotein

84
Q

GAGs: submaxillary secretions, human gastric mucin, RBC membrane sialoglycoprotein,
membrane protein, secretory proteins without enzymatic functions, immunoglobins, and
enzymes are what

A

glycolipids

85
Q

are a source of carbon for the biosynthesis of other compounds

A

carbohydrates

86
Q

the simple carbohydrate
____(dextrose) gets oxidized by liver cells

A

glucose

87
Q

For example, the simple carbohydrate
glucose (dextrose) gets oxidized by liver cells. In exchange, the cells produce ___

A

Adenosine triphosphate

88
Q

the main energy-providing compound in the cell

A

Adenosine triphosphate

89
Q

In carbohydrate ______, simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as
glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch.

A

anabolism

90
Q

In living cells, glucose is oxidized to give ___ and ____

A

carbon dioxide
energy

91
Q

In living cells, glucose is oxidized to give carbon dioxide and energy. The energy produced is in
the form of ___ and ___

A

ATP
heat

92
Q

Glucose + O2 = CO2 + energy

what process is this

A

cellular respiration

93
Q

cellular respiration that occurs in the cytoplasm

A

glycolysis

94
Q

process of cellular respiration where Glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH (a carrier of electrons).

A

glycolysis

95
Q

cellular respiration occuring in the mitochondria

A

krebs cycle

96
Q

cellular respiration stage in which Pyruvate is further broken down, releasing carbon dioxide and transferring high-energy electrons to carriers like NADH and FADH2. This cycle also produces a small amount of ATP

A

krebs cycle

97
Q

stage of cellular respiration occuring in Inner mitochondrial membrane

A

electron transport chain

98
Q

stage of cellular respiration where High-energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred through a series of proteins, ultimately combining with oxygen to form water. This process generates a large amount of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.

A

electron transport chain

99
Q

During photosynthesis in plants, ___ can be produced from CO2 and energy

A

glucose

100
Q

CO2 + energy -> glucose + O2

what process

A

photosynthesis

101
Q

in photosynthesis, the energy consumed is in the form of ___

A

sunlight

102
Q

simple carbohydrates monosaccharides include (2)

A

tetrose (c4 sugars)
pentose (c5 sugars)

103
Q

complex carbohydrates dissacharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides include (4)

A

hexose (c6 sugars)
heptose (c7 sugars)
octose (c8 sugars)
nonose (c9 sugars)

104
Q

sugars having an aldehyde function or an acetal equivalent

A

aldose

105
Q

sugars having a ketone function or an acetal equivalent

A

keose

106
Q

example of carbohydrates classified as aldoses

A

glyceraldehyde
glucose

107
Q

example of carbohydrates classified as ketoses

A

ribulose
dihydroxyacetone

108
Q

study haworth structure of monosaccharides

A

+1

109
Q

The simplest and smallest unit of the carbohydrates is the

A

monosaccharides

110
Q

The carbon atoms, to which hydroxyl groups are attached, are often chiral
centers, and stereoisomerism is common among

A

monosaccharides

111
Q

A disaccharide consists of two monosaccharides joined by what bond

A

O-glycosidic bond

112
Q

. Disaccharides
can be (2)

A

homodissacharides
heterodissacharides

113
Q

The three most abundant disaccharides are

A

sucrose
lactose
maltose

114
Q

in this disaccharide, the
anomeric carbon atoms of a glucose unit and a fructose unit are joined

A

sucrose

115
Q

in this disaccharide, consists of galactose joined to glucose by a β (1→4) glycosidic linkage

A

lactose

116
Q

in this disaccharide, α (1→4) glycosidic linkage joins two glucose units.

A

maltose

117
Q

thus, sucrose and lactose is hetero/homosaccharide

A

heterosaccharide

118
Q

maltose is a hetero/homosaccharide

A

homosaccharide

119
Q

study disaccharide figure

A

+1

120
Q

is a saccharide polymer containing a small number (typically three to ten) of component sugars, and is also known as simple sugars.

A

oligosaccharide

121
Q

They are generally found either O- or N-linked to compatible amino acid side chains in proteins or
to lipid moieties.

A

oligosaccharides

122
Q

They are also liberated as intermediate
products of saccharification by action of glycosidases on polysaccharides.

A

oligosaccharides

123
Q

cellulose has a subunit of what in what bonds

A

B-glucose
1-4

124
Q

starch can be in what form (2)

A

amylose
amylopectin

125
Q

amylose is made up of what subunits and what bonds

A

a-glucose
1-4

126
Q

amylopectin is made up of what subunit and what bonds

A

a-glucose
1-4 and 1-6

127
Q

glycogen is made up of what bonds and what subunit

A

a-glucose
1-4 and 1-6

128
Q

are relatively complex carbohydrates. They are polymers made up of many
monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bonds.

A

polysaccharides

129
Q

They tend to be amorphous, insoluble in water, and have no sweet taste.

A

polysaccharides

130
Q

When all the
monosaccharides in a polysaccharide are of the same type, the polysaccharide is called a

A

homopolysaccharide

131
Q

when more than one type of monosaccharide is present, they are called

A

heteropolysaccharide

132
Q

Examples include storage polysaccharides such as

A

starch
glycogen

133
Q

structural polysaccharides include

A

cellulose
chitin

134
Q

a hemicellulose that is a heteropolysaccharide.

A

xylan

135
Q

Polysaccharides have a general formula of

A

Cn(H2O)n-1

136
Q

is a general test for the presence of carbohydrates

A

Molisch test

137
Q

Molisch reagent is a solution made up of (2)

A

alpha-naphtol in 95% ethanol

138
Q

This test is useful for identifying any compound, which can be dehydrated to furfural or
hydroxymethylfurfural in the presence of H2SO4.

A

Molisch test

139
Q

is derived from the dehydration of pentoses and pentosans

A

furfural

140
Q

is produced from hexoses and hexosans.

A

hydroxymethylfurfural

141
Q

are hydrolyzed to yield their repeating monomers by the
acid.

A

oligosaccharides
polysaccharides

142
Q

acid that hydrolyzes carbohydrates in molisch test

A

sulfuric acid

143
Q

The alpha-naphthol reacts with the cyclic aldehydes to form in a positive test

A

purple-colored condensation products

144
Q

Although this test will detect compounds other than carbohydrates (i.e. glycoproteins), a negative result indicates the

A

absence of carbohydrates

145
Q

Bial’s reagent uses (3)

A

orcinol
HCl
FeCI3

146
Q

forms colored condensation products with
furfural generated by the dehydration of pentoses and pentosans

A

Orcinol

147
Q

Seliwanoff’s reagent contains (2)

A

resorcinol
6M in hydrochloric acid

148
Q

Hexoses undergo dehydration
when heated in this reagent to form ___

A

hydroxymethylfurfural

149
Q

hydroxymethylfurfural, which condenses with resorcinol to
give a what color for + result

A

red

150
Q

Ketohexoses (such as fructose) and disaccharides containing a ketohexose (such as sucrose) form
a ______ (Color) condensation product.

A

cherry-red

151
Q

what solution are reduced by sugars having a free aldehyde or ketone group, with
the formation of colored cuprous oxide.

Benedict’s test

A

alkaline soln of copper

152
Q

Benedict’s solution is made up of (3)

A

copper sulfate
sodium carbonate
sodium citrate

153
Q

in Benedict’s solution, this will form soluble complex ions with Cu++, preventing the precipitation of
CuCO3 in alkaline solutions

A

sodium citrate

154
Q

This reaction detects reducing monosaccharides in the presence of disaccharides

A

Barfoed’s test

155
Q

reagent of Barfoed’s test

A

copper acetate in dilute acetic acid

156
Q

a positive barfoed’s test is what color and what does it indicate

A

red
monosaccharides present

157
Q

use of this reagent is useful to distinguish starch and glycogen from other polysaccharides.

A

Lugol’s iodine reagent (IKI)

158
Q

Glycogen reacts with Lugol’s reagent to give a

A

brownblue color

159
Q

It is thought that starch and glycogen form what shape of coils

A

helical

160
Q

It is thought that starch and glycogen form helical coils. Iodine atoms can then fit into the
helices to form what complex

A

glycogen-iodine complex

161
Q

Starch in the form of amylose and amylopectin has fewer branches than

A

glycogen

162
Q

This means that the helices of starch are longer/shorter than glycogen, therefore binding more iodine
atoms

A

longer

163
Q

The result is that the color produced by a starch-iodine complex is more/less intense than that
obtained with a glycogen-iodine complex.

A

more

164
Q

is a test for galactose

A

Mucic Acid Test

165
Q

Oxidation of most monosaccharides by nitric acid yields soluble ____ acids.

A

dicarboxylic

166
Q

Oxidation of most monosaccharides by nitric acid yields soluble dicarboxylic acids. However oxidation of galactose yields what kind of acid

A

insoluble mucic acid

167
Q

also yield a mucic acid due to the hydrolysis of the glycosidic linkage between its glucose
and galactose subunits.

A

lactose

168
Q

positive test of mucic acid test indicates

A

crystals

169
Q

type of carbs that is an essentail constituent of blood

A

glucose

170
Q

carbohydrate present in nucleic acids in which it is attached -OH in carbon #2

A

ribose

171
Q

carbohydrate present in nucleic acids in which it is attached -H ONLY in carbon #2

A

deoxyribose

172
Q

carbon that has 4 different groups attached to it

A

chiral carbon

173
Q

structures that have the same # of elements

A

isomers

174
Q

_ notation is assigned to the structure with -OH on the left

A

L

175
Q

__ letter is assigned to the structure with -OH on the right

A

D

176
Q

if OH is at the bottom

A

alpha-hydroxyl group

177
Q

if OH is at the top of the anomeric carbon

A

beta-hydroxyl

178
Q

in aqueous solution, ___ are usually found in ring forms

A

monosaccharide

179
Q

monosaccharide in a ring form that can have two different arrangement

A

glucose

Biomolecules (5 decks)

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