Carbohydrates Flashcards
1
Q
often referred to as sugars, are a class of organic compounds essential for life on Earth
A
carbohydrates
2
Q
composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, often in a ratio of 1:2:1
A
carbohydrates
3
Q
serve as a primary source of energy for organisms, but they also play crucial roles in structural support, cell signaling, and energy storage
A
carbohydrates
4
Q
classification of carbohydrates (4)
A
monosaccharides
disaccharides
oligosaccharides
polysaccharides
5
Q
Simple sugars with a single sugar unit. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
A
monosaccharides
6
Q
example of monosaccharides
A
glucose
fructose
galactose
7
Q
Two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic bond. Examples include sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose
A
disaccharides
8
Q
examples of disaccharides
A
sucrose
lactose
maltose
9
Q
sucrose is made up of
A
glucose and fructose
10
Q
lactose is made up of
A
galactose and glucose
11
Q
maltose is made up of
A
α-D-glucose units
12
Q
Short chains of monosaccharides (typically 3-10 units).
A
oligosaccharides
13
Q
complex carbohydrates composed of many monosaccharide units. Examples include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.
A
polysaccharides
14
Q
polysaccharides example
A
starch
glycogen
cellulose
chitin
15
Q
are often represented by their Fischer projection, a linear representation, or their Haworth projection, a cyclic representation
A
monosaccharides
16
Q
restricts a three-dimensional molecule into two dimensions.
A
Fischer projection
17
Q
what carbon atoms determine their stereoisomers (D- and L- forms)
A
chiral carbon atoms
18
Q
a method used to show the 3D stereochemistry of cyclic sugars (or saccharides).
A
haworth projection
19
Q
the first carbon atom in the ring, can exist in either α or β configurations
A
anomeric carbon
20
Q
functions of carbohydrates
A
energy source
structural components
cell recognition
21
Q
s the primary energy source for cells.
A
glucose
22
Q
storage form of glucose in plants
A
starch
23
Q
storage form of glucose in animals
A
glycogen
24
Q
is a major component of plant cell walls, providing structural support.
A
cellulose
25
is found in the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans
chitins
26
which contain carbohydrate components, are involved in cell-cell recognition and communication.
glycoproteins
glycolipids
27
also play roles in energy storage, signaling, and immune function.
carbohydrates
28
A general test for carbohydrates
Molisch Test
29
Detects reducing sugars, which have a free aldehyde or ketone group.
Benedict's Test
30
Specific for starch, which forms a blue-black complex with iodine
iodine test
31
Differentiates between ketoses and aldoses
Seliwanoff's Test
32
Distinguishes between monosaccharides and disaccharides
Barfoed's test
33
carbohydrates are brokendown through a series of metabolic pathways such as (3)
glycolysis
citric acid cycle
oxidative phosphorylation
34
A condition characterized by high blood sugar levels.
Diabetes Mellitus
35
Inability to digest lactose, a disaccharide found in milk.
Lactose Intolerance
36
Genetic disorders affecting glycogen metabolism
Glycogen storage disease
37
in plants, these polysaccharides have their monosaccharides joined together by alpha-linkages
starch
38
in these, the bonds between monosaccharides in these are joined by beta bond
fiber
39
a type of carbohydrate that doesn't get digested in your small intestine. Instead, it ferments in your large intestine and feeds “good” gut
resistant starch
40
Carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion have what kind of glycemic index
high glycemix index
41
hormone synthesized in the pancreas, one of the body's main tools for sugar management
insulin
42
the degree to which a unit of insulin lowers blood sugar
insulin sensitivity
43
is a cluster of conditions that occur together, increasing your risk of heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes
metabolic syndrome
44
are the most abundant biomolecules belonging to a class of organic compounds
found in living organisms on earth.
carbohydrates
45
Each year, more than 100 billion metric tons of CO2 and H2O are converted into cellulose and
other plant products due to
photosynthesis
46
Living matter is largely made of biomolecules consisting of water and complex polymers of (4)
amino acids
lipids
nucleotides
carbohydraets
47
are most special of them in that they remain associated with the three other
polymers mentioned
carbohydrates
48
carbohydrates + OH will turn into
alcohol
49
carbohydrates with amino acid polymers form what
glycoproteins
50
carbohydrates linked with lipids become what
glycolipids
51
carbohydrates are also present in what which are essentially polymers of D-ribose-phosphate and 2-deoxy-D-ribose phosphate in which purines and pyrimidines are attached at C-1 reducing position
DNA and RNA
52
example of purines
guanine
adenine
53
example of pyrimindines
cytosine
thymine
uracil
54
75% of the dry weight of the plant world is ____ in nature
carbohydrate
55
example of carbohydrates in plant world
cellulose
hemicellulose
lignin
56
is a biopolymer containing heterogeneous group of polysaccharides, which is constituted of monosaccharides including hexoses (glucose, mannose, and galactose), pentoses (xylose and arabinose), and small amount of other saccharides (rhamnose and fructose
hemicellulose
57
a biopolymer that binds cellulose and hemicellulose fibers and provides stiffness to plants.
lignin
58
s are polyhydroxylated aldehydes or ketones and their derivatives.
carbohydrates
59
Simple carbohydrates or the entire carbohydrate family may also be called
saccharides
60
In general, carbohydrates have the empirical formula
(CH2O)n
61
62
an endothermic reductive condensation of carbon
dioxide requiring light energy and the pigment chlorophyll.
photosynthesis
63
empirical formula of photosynthesis
◦ nCO2 + nH2O + energy CnH2nOn + nO2
64
, chains of
individual sugars.
monosaccharides
65
are a major source of metabolic energy, both for plants and for animals that
depend on plants for food.
carbohydrates
66
the more bonds, the more ___ to build
energy
67
biological breakdown of carbohydrates that supplies
the principal part of the energy that every organism needs for various processes.
combustion
68
act as the perfect fuel that enables
us to carry out our physical activities efficiently and effectively.
type of carbohydrates
starch
sugars
69
does wonder in keeping your bowel function going smooth.
fiber
70
aid in regulating blood glucose and also do good to our body by breaking
down fatty acids, thus preventing ketosis.
carbohydrates
71
metabolic state that occurs when your body burns fat for energy instead of glucose
ketosis
72
umans lack digestive enzymes capable of hydrolyzing (breaking apart) most _-glycosidic bonds
beta
73
Linkages between sugars can occur through a ___linkage between the anomeric,
first carbon of sugar in either α or β configuration with any of a variety of hydroxyl
groups on the adjacent sugar.
glycoside
74
Insoluble carbohydrate polymers serve as structural and protective elements in what structures of bacteria and plants
cell wall
75
Insoluble carbohydrate polymers serve as structural and protective elements in what structures of animals
connective tissues
76
Plant cell walls are complex arrangements of what polymers of carbohydrates
cellulose
hemicellulose
lignin
77
is the primary
structural component of plants.
cellulose
78
as polymers of derivatives of carbohydrates are of critical importance in
intercellular communication in organisms
glycosaminoglycans
79
this ubiquitous class of ___ interacts with a wide variety of proteins,
including growth factors and chemokines, which regulate important physiological
processes
polyanions
80
The presence of _____ on cell membranes and in the extracellular matrix
also has resulted in their exploitation by infectious pathogens to gain access and entry
into animal cells.
glycosaminoglycans
81
More complex carbohydrate polymers covalently attached to proteins or lipids act as signals that determine the intracellular location or metabolic fate of these hybrid molecules, called
glycoconjugates
82
compounds in biology that consist of carbohydrates linked to non-sugar molecules like proteins, peptides, and lipids
glycoconjugates
83
act as receptors and integral membrane proteins in membranes,
cytoskeletal proteins in the cytoplasm, extracellular proteins such as antibodies,
hormones, collagen (found outside the cell), enzymes (RNase, DNase, lipases,
cholinesterase, phosphatase, pepsinogen, glycosyltransferases), etc.
glycoprotein
84
GAGs: submaxillary secretions, human gastric mucin, RBC membrane sialoglycoprotein,
membrane protein, secretory proteins without enzymatic functions, immunoglobins, and
enzymes are what
glycolipids
85
are a source of carbon for the biosynthesis of other compounds
carbohydrates
86
the simple carbohydrate
____(dextrose) gets oxidized by liver cells
glucose
87
For example, the simple carbohydrate
glucose (dextrose) gets oxidized by liver cells. In exchange, the cells produce ___
Adenosine triphosphate
88
the main energy-providing compound in the cell
Adenosine triphosphate
89
In carbohydrate ______, simple organic acids can be converted into monosaccharides such as
glucose and then used to assemble polysaccharides such as starch.
anabolism
90
In living cells, glucose is oxidized to give ___ and ____
carbon dioxide
energy
91
In living cells, glucose is oxidized to give carbon dioxide and energy. The energy produced is in
the form of ___ and ___
ATP
heat
92
Glucose + O2 = CO2 + energy
what process is this
cellular respiration
93
cellular respiration that occurs in the cytoplasm
glycolysis
94
process of cellular respiration where Glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH (a carrier of electrons).
glycolysis
95
cellular respiration occuring in the mitochondria
krebs cycle
96
cellular respiration stage in which Pyruvate is further broken down, releasing carbon dioxide and transferring high-energy electrons to carriers like NADH and FADH2. This cycle also produces a small amount of ATP
krebs cycle
97
stage of cellular respiration occuring in Inner mitochondrial membrane
electron transport chain
98
stage of cellular respiration where High-energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred through a series of proteins, ultimately combining with oxygen to form water. This process generates a large amount of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
electron transport chain
99
During photosynthesis in plants, ___ can be produced from CO2 and energy
glucose
100
CO2 + energy -> glucose + O2
what process
photosynthesis
101
in photosynthesis, the energy consumed is in the form of ___
sunlight
102
simple carbohydrates monosaccharides include (2)
tetrose (c4 sugars)
pentose (c5 sugars)
103
complex carbohydrates dissacharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides include (4)
hexose (c6 sugars)
heptose (c7 sugars)
octose (c8 sugars)
nonose (c9 sugars)
104
sugars having an aldehyde function or an acetal equivalent
aldose
105
sugars having a ketone function or an acetal equivalent
keose
106
example of carbohydrates classified as aldoses
glyceraldehyde
glucose
107
example of carbohydrates classified as ketoses
ribulose
dihydroxyacetone
108
study haworth structure of monosaccharides
+1
109
The simplest and smallest unit of the carbohydrates is the
monosaccharides
110
The carbon atoms, to which hydroxyl groups are attached, are often chiral
centers, and stereoisomerism is common among
monosaccharides
111
A disaccharide consists of two monosaccharides joined by what bond
O-glycosidic bond
112
. Disaccharides
can be (2)
homodissacharides
heterodissacharides
113
The three most abundant disaccharides are
sucrose
lactose
maltose
114
in this disaccharide, the
anomeric carbon atoms of a glucose unit and a fructose unit are joined
sucrose
115
in this disaccharide, consists of galactose joined to glucose by a β (1→4) glycosidic linkage
lactose
116
in this disaccharide, α (1→4) glycosidic linkage joins two glucose units.
maltose
117
thus, sucrose and lactose is hetero/homosaccharide
heterosaccharide
118
maltose is a hetero/homosaccharide
homosaccharide
119
study disaccharide figure
+1
120
is a saccharide polymer containing a small number (typically three to ten) of component sugars, and is also known as simple sugars.
oligosaccharide
121
They are generally found either O- or N-linked to compatible amino acid side chains in proteins or
to lipid moieties.
oligosaccharides
122
They are also liberated as intermediate
products of saccharification by action of glycosidases on polysaccharides.
oligosaccharides
123
cellulose has a subunit of what in what bonds
B-glucose
1-4
124
starch can be in what form (2)
amylose
amylopectin
125
amylose is made up of what subunits and what bonds
a-glucose
1-4
126
amylopectin is made up of what subunit and what bonds
a-glucose
1-4 and 1-6
127
glycogen is made up of what bonds and what subunit
a-glucose
1-4 and 1-6
128
are relatively complex carbohydrates. They are polymers made up of many
monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bonds.
polysaccharides
129
They tend to be amorphous, insoluble in water, and have no sweet taste.
polysaccharides
130
When all the
monosaccharides in a polysaccharide are of the same type, the polysaccharide is called a
homopolysaccharide
131
when more than one type of monosaccharide is present, they are called
heteropolysaccharide
132
Examples include storage polysaccharides such as
starch
glycogen
133
structural polysaccharides include
cellulose
chitin
134
a hemicellulose that is a heteropolysaccharide.
xylan
135
Polysaccharides have a general formula of
Cn(H2O)n-1
136
is a general test for the presence of carbohydrates
Molisch test
137
Molisch reagent is a solution made up of (2)
alpha-naphtol in 95% ethanol
138
This test is useful for identifying any compound, which can be dehydrated to furfural or
hydroxymethylfurfural in the presence of H2SO4.
Molisch test
139
is derived from the dehydration of pentoses and pentosans
furfural
140
is produced from hexoses and hexosans.
hydroxymethylfurfural
141
are hydrolyzed to yield their repeating monomers by the
acid.
oligosaccharides
polysaccharides
142
acid that hydrolyzes carbohydrates in molisch test
sulfuric acid
143
The alpha-naphthol reacts with the cyclic aldehydes to form in a positive test
purple-colored condensation products
144
Although this test will detect compounds other than carbohydrates (i.e. glycoproteins), a negative result indicates the
absence of carbohydrates
145
Bial's reagent uses (3)
orcinol
HCl
FeCI3
146
forms colored condensation products with
furfural generated by the dehydration of pentoses and pentosans
Orcinol
147
Seliwanoff's reagent contains (2)
resorcinol
6M in hydrochloric acid
148
Hexoses undergo dehydration
when heated in this reagent to form ___
hydroxymethylfurfural
149
hydroxymethylfurfural, which condenses with resorcinol to
give a what color for + result
red
150
Ketohexoses (such as fructose) and disaccharides containing a ketohexose (such as sucrose) form
a ______ (Color) condensation product.
cherry-red
151
what solution are reduced by sugars having a free aldehyde or ketone group, with
the formation of colored cuprous oxide.
Benedict's test
alkaline soln of copper
152
Benedict's solution is made up of (3)
copper sulfate
sodium carbonate
sodium citrate
153
in Benedict's solution, this will form soluble complex ions with Cu++, preventing the precipitation of
CuCO3 in alkaline solutions
sodium citrate
154
This reaction detects reducing monosaccharides in the presence of disaccharides
Barfoed's test
155
reagent of Barfoed's test
copper acetate in dilute acetic acid
156
a positive barfoed's test is what color and what does it indicate
red
monosaccharides present
157
use of this reagent is useful to distinguish starch and glycogen from other polysaccharides.
Lugol's iodine reagent (IKI)
158
Glycogen reacts with Lugol's reagent to give a
brownblue color
159
It is thought that starch and glycogen form what shape of coils
helical
160
It is thought that starch and glycogen form helical coils. Iodine atoms can then fit into the
helices to form what complex
glycogen-iodine complex
161
Starch in the form of amylose and amylopectin has fewer branches than
glycogen
162
This means that the helices of starch are longer/shorter than glycogen, therefore binding more iodine
atoms
longer
163
The result is that the color produced by a starch-iodine complex is more/less intense than that
obtained with a glycogen-iodine complex.
more
164
is a test for galactose
Mucic Acid Test
165
Oxidation of most monosaccharides by nitric acid yields soluble ____ acids.
dicarboxylic
166
Oxidation of most monosaccharides by nitric acid yields soluble dicarboxylic acids. However oxidation of galactose yields what kind of acid
insoluble mucic acid
167
also yield a mucic acid due to the hydrolysis of the glycosidic linkage between its glucose
and galactose subunits.
lactose
168
positive test of mucic acid test indicates
crystals
169
type of carbs that is an essentail constituent of blood
glucose
170
carbohydrate present in nucleic acids in which it is attached -OH in carbon #2
ribose
171
carbohydrate present in nucleic acids in which it is attached -H ONLY in carbon #2
deoxyribose
172
carbon that has 4 different groups attached to it
chiral carbon
173
structures that have the same # of elements
isomers
174
_ notation is assigned to the structure with -OH on the left
L
175
__ letter is assigned to the structure with -OH on the right
D
176
if OH is at the bottom
alpha-hydroxyl group
177
if OH is at the top of the anomeric carbon
beta-hydroxyl
178
in aqueous solution, ___ are usually found in ring forms
monosaccharide
179
monosaccharide in a ring form that can have two different arrangement
glucose
