final revision Flashcards
function of plasmid
extra genetic chromosomes to provide bacteria with genetic advantages such as antibiotic resistance
the function of pilus
elongated hollow appendages used to transfer DNA from one cell to another.
the function of fimbriae
stiff fibres that adhere them to surfaces such as host cells. Allows bacterium to gain access to the body.
the function of flagella
helps the bacteria to move
the function of ribosomes
site of protein synthesis
the function of nucleiod
essential for controlling the activity of the cell and reproduction. it is where transcription and replication of DNA takes place
the function of capsule
protects bacteria cell from ingestion and phagocytosis and helps to stick to surfaces
what is a gram staining
a technique used to differentiate bacteria based on their cell wall/peptidoglycan constituents
definition of sanitization
mechanically removes microorganisms and other debris to reduce contamination to safe level
examples of sanitization
soaps/detergents
definition of disinfection
destroys vegetative pathogens but not endospores
examples of disinfection
heat, iodine, bleach, chlorhexidine handwash
definition of sterilization
destroys and removes all microorganisms including endospores and viruses
definition of antisepsis
process that reduces number of microorganisms
what is the chain of infection?
infectious agent reservoir portal of exit mode of transmission portal of entry susceptible host
chain of infection of streptococcal pharyngitis
infectious agent- streptococcus pygones
reservoir- infected human
portal of exit- respiratory tract
mode of transmission- direct contact : droplets
portal of entry- respiratory tract
susceptible host- children, immunosuppressed individuals
chain of infection of pneumonia
infectious agent- streptococcus pneumoniae
reservoir- infected humans
portal of exit- respiratory tract
mode of transmission- direct: droplets indirect: airbone, formites
portal of entry: respiratory tract
susceptible host: newborns, immunosuppresed individuals, elderly
chain of infection of urinary tract infection
infectious agent- escherichia coli
reservoir- infected humans
portal of exit- gastrointestinal tract
mode of transmission- endogenous transfer
portal of entry- urinary tract
susceptible host- women
detection for streptococcal pharyngitis
throat swabs
throat culture
detection for pneumonia
chest x-ray
culture and sensitivity test of sputum sample
detection for urinary tract infection
urine culture
what is a culture and sensitivity test?
refers to a lab test that determines what bacterial yeast may be present in a sample and what drug can kill that bacteria
what is the range of actions of antibiotic?
broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum
what are the mechanisms of antibiotic actions
- inhibition of cell wall synthesis
- inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis
- inhibition of protein synthesis
- disruption of cell membrane permeability
- inhibition of metabolic processes
describe and explain what happens during the inhibition of cell wall synthesis (antibiotics)
Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan which protects the cells against rupture
Actively growing cells continuously produce new peptidoglycan.
Drugs such as penicillin and cephalosporin interrupt the completion of the cell wall
Cells rupture (lyse) due to the weakened cell wall
what is the function of a neuron?
cells that communicate and carry information
what is the function of a cell body?
it contains the nucleus and organelles. The cell body carries genetic information, maintains the neuron’s structure, and provides energy to drive activities
what is the function of the axons?
it conducts electrical signals
axon terminals
Bulb-shaped endings that form a synapse with the next cell. It also produces neurotransmitters such as GABA, ACH and dopamine
multipolar neurons are commonly found in the ____________ and __________ neurons
CNS and efferent neurons
Unipolar neurons are most abundant in the _________ division
afferent
Bipolar neuron are found in ____________ organs
special sensory organs
sensory neurons are also known as _______ neurons
afferent
the function of sensory/afferent neurons
it receives information from sensory receptors
the function of interneuron
receives information in the CNS and sends it to a motor neuron
the function of motor/efferent neuron
carry information to peripheral targets called effectors
what are the neuroglia cell found in CNS ?
- astrocytes
- ependymal cells
- microglia
- oligodendrocytes
what are the glial cell found in PNS?
- satellite cells
- schwann cells
functions of astrocytes ?
Star-shaped cells that provide physical and nutritional support for neurons and maintains the blood-brain barrier
functions of ependymal cells
Related to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) production and circulation
functions of microglia
Microglia are the resident Phagocytic cells derived from white blood cells and provide a first line of defence against invading pathogens. Found to be increased during CNS infections
function of oligodendrocytes
Produce an insulating membranous wrapping around axons called myelin
function of the Satellite cells
surround and support neuron cell bodies
function of the Schwann cells
Produce an insulating membranous wrapping around axons called myelin
what is a synapse
a functional junction between a neuron and another cell
neurotranmitters are stored in the ________ the axon terminal
synaptic vesicles
what are the 6 major regions in the brain?
cerebrum
cerebellum
diencephalon
midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata
functions of the cerebral cortex
primary motor area- voluntary control of skeletal muscle
primary somatosensory area- for sensory information from skeletal muscle and skin
processing centres- perform higher-level analytical functions including Wernicke’s and Broca’s area both involved in speech
what is contralateral control?
the motor cortex of each cerebral hemisphere is mainly responsible for control of movements of opposite side of the bodu
After suffering a stroke, Mary finds that she cannot move her right arm. This would suggest that the stroke damage is in the area of the ________ lobe
left frontal lobe
the function of the general interpretive area or Wernicke’s area
Integrates sensory information to form visual and auditory memory
the function of the speech center or Broca’s area
Regulates vocalization, the motor skills needed for speaking
what is aphasia?
Language disorder that affects the ability to communicate.
Aphasia does not impair the person’s intelligence.
what is Wernicke’s Aphasia (receptive)?
ability to grasp the meaning of spoken words is chiefly impaired. It is commonly associated with dominant temporal lobe CVA
Wernicke aphasia is commonly associated with
dominant temporal lobe CVA
what is Broca’s Aphasia (expressive)?
Individuals with Broca’saphasia have trouble speaking fluently but their comprehension can be relatively preserved. It is associated with frontal lobe/motor disorders
broca’s aphasia is commonly associated with
frontal lobe/motor disorders
Global aphasia
both Wernicke’s and Broca’s aphasia
what are the 3 layers of meninges
dura mater
arachnoid
pia mater
epidural space is a potential space between…..?
the bone and the dura
subdural space is a potential space between…?
dura mater and arachnoid mater
subarachnoid space is a potential space between….
the arachnoid space and the pia mater
The procedure in which the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is drawn from the subarachnoid space is termed as
lumbar puncture/ spinal tap
what is meningitis
inflammation of the meningeal layers
symptoms the patient with meningitis presents
fever, headache, projectile vomiting and neck stiffness
what is an epidural haemorrage
blood leaks out between dura and cranium
what is a subdural haemorrhage?
collection of blood between the dura and arachnoid
what is a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
bleeding/ extravasation of blood into the subarachnoid space between the pia mater and arachnoid membranes
function of the oculomotor nerves
innervate (supply an organs with neves) four extrinsic eye muscles - eye movements
function of the trochlear nerves
innervate superior oblique
function of the abducens nerves
innervate lateral rectus
function of the trigeminal nerves
sensory over the face
muscles - mastications
function of the glossopharyngeal nerves
monitors taste on the posterior third of the tongue and monitors BP and blood gases
controls pharyngeal muscles used in swallowing
function of the vagus nerves
sensory input vital to autonomic control of the viscera
motor control includes the soft palate, pharynx , and esophagus
ANS output to cardia mucles, smooth muscles, and digestive glands
what is a monosynaptic reflex?
simple reflex
a sensory neuron directly synapses on a motor neuron.
have a delay between sensory input and motor output
examples : stretch reflex (knee jerk)
what is a polysnaptic reflex
complex reflex with at least one interneuron
are slower than monosynaptic reflexes, but can activate more than one effector
-withdrawal reflexes
what is cranial reflexes?
automatic responses that involve the sensory and motor fibers of cranial nerve.
Light / pupillary reflex
Salivary reflex
Gag reflex
Corneal reflex
Lack of the pupillary reflex or an abnormal pupillary reflex can be caused by
optic nerve damage, oculomotor nerve damage, brain stem death and depressant drugs
types of sensory receptors
- chemoreceptors —– nocicpetors
2.photoreceptors
3.thermoreceptors
4.mechanoreceptors —— tactilce receptors
barorecptors
proprioceptors
receptors that respond to chemical are known as
chemoreceptors ( taste, small, blood pH)
describe what happens when our tissues are damaged
When tissues are damaged by toxins or mechanical, thermal, or electrical stimuli, they release chemicals called prostaglandins, which bind to nociceptors.
Aspirin and ibuprofen reduce pain by inhibitingthe enzymes that synthesize prostaglandins.
sensory receptors called nociceptors are responsive to
pain
Your uncle was just diagnosed with a heart attack. One of his major symptoms is left arm pain. You are not surprised because you are familiar with the phenomenon of ________ pain.
referred
what is a referred pain
stimulation of nociceptors in internal organs is felt as pain in the skin also
Nerve impulses from the nociceptors in internal organs synapse with neurons also receiving impulses from the skin.
examples of referred pain
liver and gallbladder - pain felt on right shoulder
heart- pain on left arm
colon, appendix, small intestine pain felt on stomach
describe and explain how glaucoma arises
drainage ducts are blocked and aqueous humor builds up. the resulting pressure compresses the arteries that serve the retina, where photoreceptors are located. gradual loss of vision occurs and may eventually lead to total blindness
What structure changes the shape of the lens for far and near vision?
suspensory ligament
The jellylike vitreous body is found in the ___________ of the eye.
posterior cavity
function of sclera
portects and support the eye
function of cornea
refracts light rays
function of pupil
admit lights
function of choroids
absorbs stray light
function of ciliary body
holds the lens in place
retina
contains sensory receptors for sight
rod cells
make black and white vision possible
cone cells
make colour vision possible
fovea centralis
makes acute vision possible
lens
refracts and focuses light rays
humors
transmit light rays and support the eye
optic nerve
transmit impulses to the visual cortex
difference between an ovarian cycle and uterine cycle
ovarian cycle- series of changes in ovaries associated with oocyte maturation
controlled by FSH or LH
uterine cycle- changes in the endometrial lining of the uterus
controlled by estrogen and progesterone
phases of ovarian cycle
follicle phase, ovulation and luteal phase
how long does a follicular phase takes?
14 days
how long does ovulation takes
in an instant
how long does a luteal phase takes
about 14 days
function of an uterine cycle
prepares uterine lining for implantation of fertilized ovum, called a zygote
phases of uterine cycle
menses, proliferative phase, secretory phase
what are the anterior pituitary hormones that control the uterine cycle
FSH AND LH
what happen when a fallopian tube is blocked due to infections (endometriosis)
scar tissue formation preventing the sperm from meeting the ova which hinders fertilization to occur thus leading to infertility
what are fibriods?
non malignant tumours commonly found at the uterus, prevents from implantation
the function of testes
produce sex hormones
function of epididymis
ducts where spem mature and some are stored
function of vas deferens
conduct and store sperm
function of seminal vesicles
contribute nutrients and fluid to semen
function of prostate glands
contribute fluid to semem
function of the urethra
conducts sperm
bulbourethral glands
contribute mucus-containing fluid to semen
route of sperm through male reproductive structures
- seminiferous tubules
- epididymis
- ductus deferens
- ejaculatory duct
- penis
enlarged prostatic gland is known as
benign prostatic hyperplasia
how can benign prostatic hyperplasia be treated
transurethral prostatectomy
pH of seminal gland secretion
alkaline
pH of prostate gland secretion
acidic
pH of bulbourethral glands secretion
alkaline
melanocyte produce
melanin, a pigment that colors the skin
melanin is brown, yellow-brown or black
absorbs ultraviolet protecting deeper layers
describe and explains the synthesis of vitamin D3
When exposed to sunlight, cholesterol-related sunlight in the epidermis triggers the production of Vitamin D3.
The inactive form is modified in the liver and kidneys to an active form known as calcitriol which is essential for calcium and phosphorus absorption in the small intestine.
functions of testosterone
maintain libido and stimulates aggression
stimulates bone and muscle growth
establishes and maintains male secondary sex characteristics
Maintains accessory glands and organs of the male reproductive system
what are the accessory glands of the male reproductive system
seminal gland, prostate gland, bulbourethral gland
functions of the bulbourethral glands
it buffers acidic environment and lubricate glands of the penis
what are the components of the prostate glands secretion
prostate glands secretion composes of seminiplasmin which prevents urinary tract infections
what are the components of seminal gland secretion
fructose, prostaglandins, fibrinogen
function of fructose in seminal gland secretion
for metabolism by sperm
functions of prostaglandins in seminal gland secretion
stimulate smooth muscle in tract
functions of fibrinogen in seminal gland
forms semen clot in vagina
functions of the CSF
Surrounds and bathes the exposed surfaces of the CNS and cushions and protects the CNS.
It also transports nutrients, chemicals, and wastes
3 layers of the uterine wall
perimetrium , myometrium,
endometrium
which muscle layer of the uterine wall contracts during labor and delivery
myometrium
what congenital hypothyroidism (cretisim)?
underdeveloped thyroid at birth —> undersecretion of thyroid hormone
what is myxedema ?
hypothyroidism in adults.
what are the symptoms of myxedema
lethargy, weight gain, loss hair, lowered body temperature
what is exophthalmic goiter?
oversecretion of thyroid hormone.
symptoms of exophthalmic goiter
hyperactivity, nervousness, irritability
