*Final Exam Flashcards
Prostate
citric acid secretions (potential ATP source), enlarges with age, declotting factors
glomerulus
many folded capillaries
vas deferens
tube transports sperm back into body (outside for lower temp- dartos and cremaster muscles help this)
Plexus of Meissner
neurons for mucus glands (food lubrication) in submucosa layer
erythropoietin
growth factor synthesized by kidneys and functions in the differentiation of RBCs
4 breathing patterns
- eupnea- normal breathing (16-20 per min)
- apnea- temporary cessation of breathing (snoring, overweight, alcohol, preemies)
- dyspnea- painful breathing
- tachypnea- rapid breathing (~40 per min)
testosterone
major male hormone, made by leydig cells, male embryonic development, secondary traits, aggression
passive artificial immunity
antibody shot (rabies shots)
secondary oocyte (what and where)
telophase I, generates first polar body, in graafian follicle, becomes egg
Boyle’s law in relation to ventilation
relaxed diaphragm- lung and outside air pressure are equal (maybe 760mmHg)
diaphragm contracts, increases lung volume, LOWERING pressure
inhale- high pressure outside, low pressure inside pushes air in
air pressure goes to equal or slightly higher (780 mmHg)
relax the diaphragm- volume lowers, pressure inside increases, exhale
raphe
scrotal midline (used for surgery)
thymosin
thymus gland hormone that matures T cells after they leave the red bone marrow
uncontrolled diabetes and metabolic acidosis (why?)
can’t get glucose into cells to make ATP, so cells use fat for energy. when fats are converted to ATP, acidic ketones are produced, causing ketoacidosis (metabolic acidosis) in the blood
Juxtaglomerular cells
make renin, recognize low blood volume, starts renin-angiotensin pathway
salivary amylase
enzyme in saliva that breaks down carbs into sugars
Frank-Starling Law
increased preload causes increased contractility
passive natural immunity
mom and baby, breastmilk, placenta
Inhibin in females
stops FSH so pregnancy can progress, made by granulosa cells
What allows you to hold your breath?
cerebral cortex
larynx
anterior and inferior branch of pharynx, leads to respiratory system
active natural immunity
best, actually get disease (strep)
electrical conduction route through the heart
SA node, atria, AV node, atria contract together, bundle of His, bundle branches, Purkinje fibers, ventricles contract
ANP does what with the urinary system?
suppresses ADH and aldosterone, shuts down renin-angiotension pathway, promotes diuresis (urination)
estrogen
granulosa cells, secondary traits, embryo development, water balance, lowers cholesterol
T cells
combat intracellular antigens, these kill infected cells (Mr. T)
fimbriae
fingers, move egg to fallopian tubes
microvilli
tiny folds in the membrane of the epithelial cells lining the small intestine
Frank-Starling Law
increased preload causes increased contractility
Lack of ADH causes what?
diabetes insipidus
dysuria
painful urination
Where are all blood cells produced?
red bone marrow
progesterone (function and what cells produce)
from thecal cells of corpus luteum, pregnancy hormone, takes uterus from proliferative to secretory state, produce milk
uncontrolled diabetics and polyphagia (why?)
“uncontrolled diabetics have excessive glucose in the blood, but no insulin to open doorways for glucose to get into the cells. The cells are starving and sending the message to eat”
lymph nodes
ENCAPSULATED, found within vessels
zona pellucida
fluid layer initially seen in primary follicles, surrounds egg, immediately closes after fertilization (menstrual phase)
terminal bronchioles
smallest branches
What vessels surround the DCT and PCT?
peritubular capillaries
second line of defense
fever, phagocytic cells (WBCs), inflammatory response
polyuria
overproduction of urine
Pepsinogen/pepsin
HCl activates pepsinogen, converts it to pepsin, pepsin cuts up proteins into small strings called peptides
interleukins
“chemical messengers that coordinate the activities of the immune system”
corpus albicans
dead corpus luteum (no pregnancy) (post ovulatory phase)
uncontrolled diabetics and polyuria (why?)
with excess glucose in the blood, more is being filtered into the filtrate
the cell doors quickly reach Transport Maximum (Tm) and can’t get all the glucose back into the blood
“excess glucose goes down the descending limb, reversing osmosis, and making (LOTS OF) water enter the limb instead of leaving like it should”
kupffer cells
“major phagocytic cells of the liver”, destroy old RBCs, converts heme to bilirubin (enters bile, gives feces its color)
not working = chronic infections and jaundice (bilirubin buildup)
Acini cells
produce pancreatic juiceput HCO3- into pancreatic juice (which becomes sodium bicarbonate)
neutralizing acidic chyme entering small intestines
puts H+ into blood to correct alkaline nature
make the 8 pancreatic enzymes
renal autoregulation
ability of kidneys to maintain a constant glomerular filtration rate despite changes
segmentation
-muscles of the small intestine break chyme into sections and move it along
-breaks big fat globules into smaller globules
MAKES IT EASIER TO ABSORB FATS
antibodies (function and who makes)
made by B cells, destroy antigens
arytenoid cartilage
in back of larynx, controls movement of vocal chords
renal auto regulation
ability of kidneys to maintain a constant glomerular filtration rate despite changes
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (and what happens when you’re angry)
maintains normal glomerular blood pressure
EX- anger (causes BP to rise dramatically), juxtaglomerular apparatus will vasoconstrict afferent arterioles (less blood in) and vasodilate efferent arterioles (more blood out)
(increased) urinary frequency
voiding more than normal
primary oocyte (what and where)
prophase I, initial egg (crossing over & synapsis), in primordial follicle (all eggs are frozen in this state)
secondary bronchi
branches leading to lobes of lungs
What are reticulocytes and what makes them so odd?
immature RBCs that have expunged their nucleus and kept their organelles (mature RBC’s have no organelles)
neutrophils
phagocytic WBC that is first to a wound site
Bohr effect
(how pH affects affinity)
CO2 from tissues goes to blood
this causes acidosis (it’s generating H+ from H2O)
hemoglobin recognizes the pH drop and lets go of its O2
hemoglobing then picks up the extra H+, rasing pH
apneustic center
slows down respiration
Lack of ADH causes what?
diabetes insipidus
seminiferous tubules
produce sperm (in lobules)
leydig cells
make testosterone
interferon
chemicals that warn healthy cells of a virus
intercalated cells
cells involved in pH adjustment (compensatory response cells, move H+ between blood and filtrate)
Trypsinogen/trypsin
enterokinase activates trypsinogen, converts it to trypsin, trypsin then activates the protein enzymes (elastase, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase)
asthma
spasm of smooth muscle walls of the terminal bronchioles
nocturia
excessive urination at night (because of posteral change)
is it possible to become pregnant without the big LH surge?
No, without the LH surge the egg can’t rupture the graafian follicle and can’t be released
Dalton’s Law
“each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure, as if all other gases were not present” (look at each gas individually)
partial pressure- pressure exerted by an individual gas (lower at altitudes… also what medicine is really interested in)
cardiac output (what, normal output, and calculate)
amount of blood pumped out by the left ventricle in one minute, 4-6L DON’T FORGET IT IS IN LITERS FOR MINUTE, SV X HR = CO
Two types of alveolar cells
- type I alveolar cells- “gas exchange between air and blood happens across these cells”
- type II alveolar cells- make surfactant
principal cells
BIND SITES for ADH and aldosterone (goal- boost low blood volume and pressure)
pharynx
common tube for food and air
intrinsic clotting pathway
activated by trauma inside the vascular system (minor cuts)
pancreatic amylase
breaks down carbs into disaccharides in the small intestine
graafian follicle
mature secondary follicle (preovulatory phase)
lymph nodules
“clusters of lymphocytes embedded on reticular fibers within mucus membranes”
parietal cells
contain enzyme carbonic anhydrase
also run CO2 + H2O ⇔ HCO3- + H+ reaction
put H+ into stomach to make HCl
put HCO3- into blood (alkaline, neutralizes H+)
tunica albuginea
fibrous, forms incomplete septa
8 pancreatic enzymes and what they break down into
pancreatic amylase - disaccharides pancreatic lipase - fats ribonuclease - nucleic acids deoxyribonuclease - nucleic acids trypsinogen (inactive) - converted by enzyme enterokinase into trypsin TRYPSIN THEN ACTIVATES... chymotrypsin - proteins elastase - proteins carboxypepsidase - proteins
enterokinase
activates trypsinogen
What does the chorion do?
fetal part of placenta, allows nutrients to pass, fits in secretory folds
varicocele
Varicose vein in testes causes infertility by raising temperature (killing sperm)
MAC
membrane attack complex
humoral pathway (targets what, who are the main cells)
(blood pathway for disease prevention- targets pathogen)
- B cell is activated, ingests pathogen
- B cell attaches epitope to MHC II marker (antigen presentation)
- Th cell binds to MHC II, produces interleukin II
- interleukin II pushes B cell to divide into 2 groups: memory cells and plasma cells (plasma cells make antibodies)
blood pressure (what and normal numbers)
pressure of blood against in the inside wall of a blood vessel, 120/80
Plexus of Auerbach
neurons that stimulate peristalsis in muscularis layer
antrum
gathered vesicles, form graafian follicle (preovulatory phase) (Mike Wazowski smile)
is it possible to become pregnant without the big LH surge?
No, without the LH surge the egg can’t rupture the graafian follicle and can’t be released
2 digestive system cells that run the carbonic anhydrase reaction, where they are, and what their purpose is
parietal cells- stomach, contain carbonic anhydrase and run reaction
puts H+ into stomach (makes HCl)
puts HCO3- into blood (alkaline, neutralizes H+)
acini cells- produce pancreatic juice
put HCO3- into pancreatic juice, neutralizes acidic chyme entering small intestine
puts H+ into blood to correct its alkaline (pH 7.35-7.45) nature
monocytes
differentiate into macrophages which clean up dead cells
What does the ascending loop do?
impermeable to water, also Na+ is actively pumped back out to tissues here
acid reflux disease
caused by a defective cardiac sphincter, acid rises into esophagus, results in damage to esophageal wall (as there is no protective mucus)
Macula Densa cells
ascending tubule cells in region where it makes contact with afferent arterioles (CONNECTS TUBES TO BLOOD)
hemoglobin and iron
protein that carries oxygen inside a RBC, oxygen binds to the iron in the hemoglobin
cricoid cartilage
only cartilage ring to completely surround airway
LH in females
ruptures follicle, ovulation
mixing waves
mechanical action the the stomach created by peristalis, churning creates this
first line of defense
barriers (skin, mucus, tears)
GnRH in females
releases FSH
sertoli cells
span seminiferous tubule walls, nurtures germ cells in spermatogenesis
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (and what happens when you’re angry)
maintains normal glomerular blood pressure
EX- anger (causes BP to rise dramatically), juxtaglomerular apparatus will vasoconstrict afferent arterioles (less blood in) and vasodilate efferent arterioles (more blood out)
Sympathetic response does what to blood pressure?
raises it by vasoconstriction
Pregnancy occurs on what days of a 28 day cycle?
14th most likely, 15th maybe
reabsorption
occurs between proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and peritubular capillaries, ESPECIALLY glucose and water
eosinophils
-respond to parasitic infections -type of leukocyte that makes ANTIHISTAMINE HISTAMINASE which shuts down the inflammatory response
primordial follicle
primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of granulosa cells
FSH in females
takes primordial follicles to primary follicles, oogenesis
Describe the role of prothrombinase in cuts
it activates prothrombin turning it into thrombin which converts fibrinogen into fibrin threads (bloot clots)
MHC II
“special markers embedded in the membranes of macrophages and B cells” (ID epitopes of invaders for T cells)
compensatory response
when kidneys correct acidosis caused by respiratory system (body isn’t going to just give up)
What does the descending limb do?
Na+ concentration gradient is higher outside of descending limb, so water is forced OUT the entire length of this and the Loop of Henle (60L)
Boyle’s Law
“pressure of a gas in a closed container is inversely proportional to the volume of that container”
thyroid cartilage
Adam’s apple, front and side of larynx
Hyaline Membrane Disease (why and how do you treat)
no surfactant before 40 weeks, so preemies can’t break the hydrogen bonds (water surface tension) to reinflate the alveoli
solution- shoot mom with a steroid, give baby surfactant
pneumotaxic center
speeds up respiration
basophils
produce histamines (inflammatory chemicals that vasodilate wound site)
thymus gland
matures T cells
cell mediated pathway (targets what, who are the main cells)
(Targets infected cells)
- MHC 2 takes the epitopes the B-cells have pulled of in Humoral immunity and waves them around (antigen presentation)
- Tc cells recognize these MHC 2 cells as viruses (remember, MHC 2 is holding onto a piece of the virus)
- The Th cells then activate these Tc cells, who proved to roam around the body looking for infected cells that have these epitome markers
- If they find these epitope markers in one of your body cells, the Tc cells produce perforin, puncturing the infected cell and stopping the virus from spreading
FSH in males
binds to sertoli cells and with testosterone promotes spermatogenesis
LH in males
binds to leydig cells to make testosterone
NK cells
kill body cells that aren’t right (tumors) (Police)
secretion (digestive system)
depositing of enzymes into the GI tract (a key function of the pancreas)
2 endometrial layers
functional- sheds
basal- regeneration occurs here
Parasympathetic response does what to blood pressure?
lowers it by vasodilation
chief cells
secrete inactive pepsinogen
2 kinds of stomach cells
chief cells- secrete inactive enzyme pepsinogen
parietal cells- contain enzyme carbonic anhydrase, also run CO2 + H2O ⇔ HCO3- + H+ reaction, put H+ into stomach to make HCl, put HCO3- into blood (alkaline, neurtralizes H+)
GnRH in males
releases LH/FSH
thecal cells
fluid capsule, makes progesterone (menstrual phase)
trachea
tube of ‘C’ shaped cartilage open in back for esophagus to swallow
hepatocytes
make bile
store glycogen (carbs) and fat soluble vitamins (like vitamin K)
make plasma proteins
albumin- controls osmosis, failure = ascites
alpha & beta globulins
compliment proteins- low = prone to bleeding
prothrombin- bruising
fibrinogen- more bruising
cryptorchidism
Undescended testicles, fix before the age of 2 or higher cancer rate / damage by body heat
relaxin
made by granulosa cells after it becomes the corpus luteum, relaxes uterus
functions of the lymphatic system
defense, fat absorption (through lacteals, fluid balance (BHP moves 30L of fluid a day, BCOP pushes 27L back in, the extra 3L is picked up by the lymphatic capillaries)
extrinsic clotting pathway
activated by external trauma that causes blood to escape from the vascular system (major bleeding)
What does the amnion do?
encases baby, filled with fetal urine, cushions, amniocentesis tests fluid in here for women over 35 (because higher birth defects)
B cells
lymphocytes that combat extracellular antigens, have the capacity to make a memory of that antigen” function by producing plasma cells which make antibodies (taggers) (Mothership)
urinary retention
failure to release urine
5 male hormones
LH, FSH, inhibin, GnRH, adn testosterone
seminal vesicles
secretions contain fructose (energy source), alkaline to neutralize FEMALE urine, clotting factors (clump sperm to protect from urine), prostaglandins ( help sperm motility and viability)
leukocytosis (what and cause)
high WBC count (bacterial infection)
active artificial immunity
vaccines like chicken pox, DPT, MMR (inject epitopes at no risk, not true of weak/dead virus)
aminopeptidase
brush border enzyme, along with carboxypeptidase cut individual amino acids off strings of carboxyl and amino acids
respiratory acidosis
lower than normal blood pH due to too much CO2 (anything that prevents blowing off CO2, shifts reaction to the left creating acidosis)
filtration
non-selective (anything is filtered), main thing happening between glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule
What hormone releases bile?
Cholecystokinin
respiratory alkalosis
higher than normal pH (caused by hyperventilation)
Where are the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers?
the pons
stroke volume (what, normal volume, calculate)
avg. 70mL, amount pumped out by the left ventricle with each contraction, end diastolic volume minus end systolic volume
What vessels surround the ascending limb, descending limb, and loop of Henle?
vas erecta
corpus luteum
repaired corpus hemorrhagicum, makes estrogen & progesterone (support for first 14 days) (post ovulatory phase)
acrosome
cap of sperm, enzymes (all sperm release enzymes at once)
Where is testosterone produced?
leydig cells
lysozyme
enzyme in saliva that destroys bacterial membranes
primary bronchi
2 branches leading to the lungs
bronchioles
smaller branches
brush border cells
line microvilli, make enzymes (enterokinase (which activates trypsinogen), aminopepsidase (for proteins), and carb enzymes (the amylases))
ectopic sites
small group of heart muscles can become over excited, raise heart rate to 210+ bpm (too fast for the heart to fill completely)
chylomicrons
golgi body of brush border cells package lipids for export in these structures (which go to lacteals)
What is prothrombinase the result of?
end product of intrinsic and extrinsic pathways
B cell nucleotide shuffling
creates different mRNA codons for each new infection
leukopenia (what and cause)
low WBC count (usually viral infection)
testicular torsion
Testes flip and turn. Cuts off blood supply (painful), 1 hour to save testes
inhibin in males
stops FSH (spermatogenesis) when the ampulla is full
epitopes
“foreign markers on the surface of microbes capable of eliciting an immune response”
HGC
chorion cells make HCG to keep corpus luteum going after 21 days, only make when you are pregnant, high levels equal twins or Downs
bulbourethral gland
“highly alkaline secretions are activated during arousal to clean acidic urine from the MALE urethra” B-boy
epididymis
duct, matures sperm
What does the yolk sac do?
outside placenta, forms blood cells, contains germ cells
corpus hemorrhagicum
damaged follicle left by ovulation (ovulatory phase)
