FAMILIES AND HOUSEHOLDS: CHANGING FAMILY PATTERNS Flashcards
The change in divorce rates:
-Since the 1960’s divorce rates have dramatically increased in the UK. Currently 40% of all marriages end in divorce. Divorce rates showed a continuous increase until 1993 where it they then peaked.
Why did the divorce rates show a peak in the 1990’s?
-Number of marriages has fallen since the 1990s as people are choosing to cohabit.
Trend in petitions for divorce:
-Today 65% of petitions for divorce come from women. In 1946 only 37% of women petitioned for divorce.
-The most common reason for women wanting to divorce is unreasonable behaviour of her husband.
Explanations for the increase in divorce:
-1. Changes in the law: 1969 Divorce Law Reform Act
2. Declining stigma and changing attitudes
3. Secularisation
4. Rising expectations of marriage
5. Women’s increased financial independence
6. Feminist explanations
7. Modernity and individualisation.
Changes in the law which have made divorce more obtainable:
-1923- Equalising the grounds for divorce: rise in divorce rates for women.
1971- Widening the grounds for divorce: rates doubled almost overnight.
1949- Making divorce cheaper: Legal aid for divorce cases- made it more obtainable for working class.
Options other than divorce:
-Desertion, legal separation, and an empty shell’ marriage.
-Due to divorce becoming easier to obtain these options have become less popular.
Desertation
-One person will leave the other but they remain legally married.
Legal seperation
-Where a court separates financial and legal affairs but the two remain married.
Empty shell’ marriage
-The two still live together but remain married only in name.
Stigma
-Refers to negative label, social disapproval or shame attached to something such as, an action.
Stigma attached to divorce
-Divorce in the past tended to be stigmatised by the church.
-Mitchell&Goody(1997) argue since the 1960’s this stigma has decreased.
-As divorce becomes more socially acceptable, it is more likely couples will resolve their problems this way.
-Divorce is merely seen as a “misfortune”
Secularisation
-This refers to the church becoming less influential in society. The Church was the main opposer of divorce and so society is now more accepting of divorce.
-Churches are beginning to soften views on divorce to remain relevant/ credible
Fletcher(1966)
-Suggests the high expectations of marriage are the main cause of the increase in divorce rates. High expectations make couples less tolerant of unhappiness.
Ideology of romantic love
-The belief marriage should be based upon love with the idea you have found “Mr or Mr right”. If the marriage fails it allows the individual to find “the one” for them. This goes against the past as people married due to sense of duty as the family was a unit of production. People did not have high expectations on marriage.
Allan and Crow(2001)
-Argue that people no longer see marriage as a binding contract. They see it as a relationship in which they seek personal fulfilment. If this is not met, divorce occurs.
Changing position of women
-Women are no longer reliant upon men and are now more free to leave a marriage if it is unsatisfactory due to their increased financial dependency.
Factors contributing the improved position of women
-More women are in paid work: 1971=53% 2013=67%.
Girls tend to achieve greater in education.
Equal pay and anti discrimination laws.
Welfare benefits.
Feminist explanation:
-Women suffering a dual burden results in conflict of couples, and increases the divorce rates. Women’s position in the public sphere has improved but privately marriage remains patriarchal.
Hochschild(1997):
-Argues that home life for women is unfavourable compared to their working life, within the work place they are treated as equals.
-Home life is a constant source of frustration over housework which results in conflict.
-Men and women work long hours and cannot resolve their conflicts, both reasons contribute to the higher divorce rates.
Sigle-Rushton(ESRC, 2007):
-Argues that women which carry a dual burden are more likely to divorce than non working mothers are will leave their husband if he fails to value her domestic work or won’t pull his weight
Bernard(1976):
(Radical feminist)
-Argues that increased divorce rates are a reaction to the increasing acceptance of feminist ideas and acknowledgement of the patriarchal marriage (being more conscious) which women are more likely to reject.
Beck and Giddens(1992)
(individualism contributing to a higher divorce rate)
-Argue that in a modem society traditional norms lose their influence.
-Individuals take less interest in living up to the expectations of society, and seek personal fulfilment such as perusing our own self interest.
-This leads to relationships being more fragile due to personal fulfilment tending not to be met and so individuals seek what Giddens refers to as a pure relationship.
-Therefore, individualism can bring about conflict between couples e.g. disagreements over work or spending money which can cause divorce.
what is a pure relationship?
-Giddens: this relationship exists simply to satisfy the needs of the other person. This leads to an increase in divorce rate and normalises the idea of it.
why are functionalists optimistic about marriage despite the higher divorce rates?
-because most people still marry and may remarry showing people haven’t rejected the idea of marriage together.
what aspect of rising divorce rates do functionalists fail to explain?
-functionalists fail to explain why most divorce is instigated by women.
what is the new right viewpoint on divorce?
-Believe high divorce rates undermine marriage and the traditional nuclear family which they believe to be ideal.
-They believe divorce rates create an underclass of welfare dependent lone parents who are a burden and create deviant boys as they have no male role model.
what is the Feminist viewpoint on divorce?
- pro-divorce
-take on the belief that high divorce rates are a positive thing as it shows women are breaking free from the patriarchal norms of a nuclear family.
what is the Postmodernists and individualisation thesis regarding divorce?
-Believe that higher divorce rates represent individuals and their increasing freedom to end a relationship which no longer meets their needs.
-Divorce is believed to be a major source of greater diversity of families.
what is the Functionalist viewpoint on divorce?
-Believe high divorce rates are not a threat to the institute of marriages as the high rates of re marriages shows individuals are still committed to the idea of marriage. –It shows simply individuals have higher expectations of marriage.
what is the Interactionist views on divorce?
-their aim is to discover what divorce means to an individual
-look at meanings not the generalisation
Morgan- interactionist view:
-argues we are unable to generalise about the meaning of divorce as it differs depending on the person.
what is the the personal life perspective on divorce?
-Believe that divorce is able to spiral more problems
-These problems can include financial difficulty and restricted contact with children.
-is ‘normalised’ as another phase in the life course
Smart(2011):
-Argues divorce has become normalised.
-Family life is adapting, not disintegrating.
-Divorce should be seen as another transition in the life course as oppose to a social problem.
what are changes in marriage rates?
-Marriage rates are at their lowest since the 1920’s.
-People are marrying later: average age for a women=32, for men=30
which has risen 7 years since 1978.
-Couples are less likely to marry in church. 1970- 60% in church, 2018- 20%.
what are the rates for remarriage?
-In 2012 1/3 of all marriages where re marriages.
-However, this is leading to “serial monogamy”.
( Having only one monogamous relationship at a time, but multiple partners throughout a lifetime due to death, divorce, or choice.)
-Major reason for this increase is the rise in divorce rates.
why have marriage rates changed?
- Changing attitudes towards marriage,
- Secularisation,
- Decline in stigma,
- Changing position of women,
- Fear of divorce.
what is the average age to marry?
-Increasing as individuals are concentrating on education and careers, many couples also cohabit first
what is cohabitation?
-refers to an unmarried couple living together in a sexual relationship. This type of relationship is the fastest growing. 1 in 8 couples now cohabit.
what are the rates for cohabitation?
-1/5 of cohabiting adults lived together previously
-1 in 8 couples cohabit.
-About 2.9 million heterosexual couples cohabiting in the UK.
-Estimated about 69,000 same sex cohabiting couples.
what are 4 reasons for the increase in cohabitation?
- declining stigma attached to living together outside of wedlock
-greater acceptance among young people
-less need for financial security of marriage
-impact of secularisation
how has secularisation regarding marriage impacted rates?
-The influence of the church has declined and so, individuals feel more free to decide not to marry.
2001- census identified that 17% of religious young people were married compared to 3% of non-religious young people.
how has a decline in stigma has impacted marriage rates?
-It is widely accepted now to remain single, have premarital sex, and to cohabit etc. -In 1989 70% of individuals believed that a couple should marry if they wanted children. Only 42% felt this way in 2012.
how has the changing position of women has impacted the change in marriage rates?
-Women are now increasingly financially dependent, this has allowed them to become independent, they are no longer reliant upon men.
-This has given them more freedom to remain single, and away from the idea of marriage.
-Women may now reject the patriarchy and oppression which marriage reflects (according to feminist ideas)
how has the fear of divorce and its impact on marriage rates?
-As divorce rates increase, many individuals are put off marriage.
what are 2 different ways in which cohabitation may be seen by couples?
-Chester: claims cohabitation is a ‘trial marriage’
-Coast: notes that 75% of cohabiters intend to marry eventually
-Bejin: DISAGREES: cohabitation is a negotiated relationship with greater compromise and equality
Chester:
-Argues that for most couples cohabitation is a stepping stone in order to get to marriage.
-Coast(2006) supports this as he found that 75% of cohabiting couples expect to get married eventually.
what is a “Trial marriage”?
-It is believed that cohabitation is a trial marriage in which couples intend to marry after if it goes well, especially if they have children. It can also be a temporary phase of any partner is awaiting a divorce.
Bejin(1993):
-Believes that cohabitation is a conscious attempt to create more equality within a relationship.
what are 3 rights that are the same for same-sex couples and heterosexual couples?
-Right to adopt (2022)
-Equal financial rights to property, inheritance etc.. (2004)
-Equal marriage rights (2014)
Weeks(1999)
-argues same sex relationships are beginning to resemble heterosexual relationships due to their increased social acceptance.
-same-sex relationships are based entirely on personal decision and not conformity to norms
-same-sex families develop a chosen family network of very close friends
how have same-sex relationships changed since 1970s?
ACCORDING TO WESTERN:
-in the 1970s, same-sex relationships were more casual and less committed
-monogamy has now been embraced
what has been the legal acceptance on same-sex couples?
-legal acceptance has been brought about greater stability for same-sex couples
Eiansdottir(2011): gay people see legal recognition of same sex relationships as limiting
-Believes that for some same sex couples they have built themselves around difference and do not wish for a relationship based on heterosexual norms.
what are 3 patterns of one-person households today?
-Duncan and Philips: 1 in 10 adults are LATs in relationships but don’t live with their partner
-by 2033, 30% of households will be single person
-40% of single person households are aged 65+
-they’re increasing dramatically
what are 2 reasons for the increased number of one person households?
-increasing divorce and decline of marriage= more people choose to to live alone-> creative singlehood
-some are unchosen e.g. elderly widows
what are 2 reasons why couples may choose to live apart?
-some couples live apart for financial reasons/ keep their home,
-others base the decisions on emotional reasons, such as it feels too easy, they get on better living apart
what are 3 patterns of childbearing today?
-47% are born outside of marriage, double the figure of 30 years ago
-the average age as a woman has her first child is now 28.6 (2016)
-women generally are having fewer children
what are 2 reasons for the changes in patterns of childbearing
-decline in stigma and increase in cohabitation
-women delaying motherhood in favour of careers
what are 2 reasons for the rise in the number of lone-parent families?
-increase in divorce
-increase in children born outside of wedlock
what are 3 reasons why lone-parent families to be headed by women?
-women still seen as nurturing role
-women get custody offer a divorce
-when less willing to give up to take on more childcare
what 2 reasons are why some women may be single by choice?
-women may not want the dad to be involved and can afford to finance themselves
-low income women may still choose to be single if it means escaping an abusive relationship- Cashmore
what reason does murray give for the increase in lone-parent families?
-claims that lone parent families are on the rise
Murray(1984):
The new right
-Believes lone parent families create problems in society as they are reliant upon the welfare state and due to their tendency of being female headed, they produce delinquent boys who lack a male role model.
-He believes the increase in LPF is due to a generous welfare state. He believes that this has created a perverse incentive, and this creates a dependency culture.
what is a ‘perverse incentive’?
-where irresponsible behaviours are rewarded through benefits
what is ‘dependency culture’?
-people assume the state should and will support them.
what is the solution to dependency culture according to MURRAY?
-states the solution is to abolish the welfare state altogether.
what are 4 reasons why lone-parent families are likely to be in poverty?
-childcare is too expensive as 60% of lone parent mothers are unemployed.
-benefit payments are inadequate
-poverty is familiarised, women tend to earn less money and take on low paid roles
-absent fathers may refuse to pay maintenance.
why are the children in step families more likely to be from the women’s previous relationship rather than the mans?
-children tend to remain with their mother after divorce.
why might step families face poverty as a problem?
-there are more children and the step father may have 2 families to care for (lack of finance)
what tensions might exist in step families?
-due to the mix of blood relations and step parents, the step children won’t respect their step parents and argue back
what are 2 reasons that black families are more likely to be lone-parent families?
-during slavery, children were sold to with the mother and separated from their father
-male unemployment is high in black groups; women prefer to remain alone and look after their own finances.
what does Mirza state the statistics on black lone-parent families may not reflect the true situation?
-they don’t help us to understand factors such as the fierce independence of black women/ they have lots of support from other relatives and friends.
what are 2 reasons why asian households tend to be larger than other ethnic groups?
-being more fertile
-more likely to adopt an extended family household due to cultural/religious factors and having a duty to look after
CHARLES- continued existence of the extended family
-3 generational families are all but extinct except in Bangladeshi community
WILLMOTT- continued existence of the extended family
- dispersed extended families ( relatives geographically separated but maintain frequent contact through through visits and phone calls) are still common as people have close ties with relatives who live elsewhere
CHAMBERLAIN- continued existence of the extended family
- extended families are still very close and supportive networks in black communities.
BELL- continued existence of the extended family
- w/c and m/c families had emotional bonds with kin and relied on their support
-m/c there was more financial support from father to son
-w/c have more frequent contact and more domestic help from mother to daughter
what are 2 features of the beanpole family?
-extended vertically (grandparents and great-grandparents)
-fewer horizontal relatives (cousins, aunts, uncles)
what are the obligations that CHEAL identifies?
-household tasks given to wife, daughter, daughter in law etc
(women chosen as caregiver; assumed to perform the expressive role)
-babysitting for family members
-visiting sick relatives
-caring for old relatives
-to financially support family members
what are 2 demographic changes have encouraged the beanpole family?
-increased life expectancy
-smaller family size
