CRIME AND DEVIANCE TOPIC 8: GLOBALISATION, GREEN CRIME, HUMAN RIGHTS AND STATE CRIME Flashcards
what is globalisation?
-The widening, deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of life from cultural to the criminal, the financial to the spiritual.
types of crimes:
- Money laundry: making dirty money clean through shell businesses (capital is London)
- Drug growth and use
- Sexploitation, grooming, etc
- Cyber terrorism (global terrorism through internet)
- Human trafficking
what are some causes of globalisation?
- global mass media
- new technology
- easier movement of businesses
- cheap air travel
-deregulation of financial and other markets
according to HELD, what causes the spread of transnational organised crime?
-globalisation created new opportunities for crime through offences and means
-> increasing connectedness across national borders has led to new offences, such as cyber crime
according to CASTELLS, what is the value of the global criminal economy?
-argues that there is a global crime economy which is worth £1 trillion per annum.
Global crimes:
-These all contribute to the global crime economy:
->human trafficking for women and children, often liked to prostitution or slavery. 1/2 million people trafficked to Western Europe annually.
->the drugs trade £300-400 billion annually at street prices.
->smuggling of illegal immigrants e.g the Chinese Triads make and estimated 2.5 billion annually.
->Sex tourism: westerners travel to Third World countries for sex, sometimes involving minors.
Which countries make up the demand side of the global economy?
The rich west have a high scale of transnational crime.
Use an example to highlight how the supply side of global crime is linked to the globalisation process.
Third world drug producing countries such as Columbia is where crime is an attractive opportunity that offers little investment in technology and commands high prices.
use an example to explain what is meant by ‘risk consciousness’.
-there is a greater awareness/ fear of the negative consequences of globalisation e.g. in western countries they associate crime with immigration
what is the role of the media in creating fears?
-to create a moral panic as global risk consciousness is heightened by the media
what has been the result of risk consciousness of immigration in the UK and Europe?
-resulted in changes of law in order to deal w/ perceived risks
-border controls have been tightened+prosecutions toughened
-immigrants can be held indefinitely in detention centres
according to TAYLOR
(NEO-MARXIST) how has globalisation led to greater inequality on a global scale?
-creates crime at both ends of the socioeconomic spectrum
-the rich exploit, the poor commit crime for survival
how does globalisation changes patterns of work?
-TNCs can now switch manufacturing to low-wage countries to gain higher profits & creates poor working conditions abroad
=producing job insecurity, unemployment & poverty in western countries e.g. UK
->deregulation means governments have little control over their own economies and state spending on welfare has declined
what is the impact of marketisation on lifestyles?
-globalised society has encourages people to value consumerism and individualism so social cohesion is undermined
how do marxists argue that globalisation has caused rising crime for the poor ?
- the poor= greater insecurity encourages people to turn to crime (lucrative drugs trade)
how do marxists argue that globalisation has caused rising crime for the elite groups?
- for the elite, globalisation creates large-scale criminal opportunities for insider trading and tax evasion
how does globalisation create opportunities for the elite?
- powerful people use cyber networks to commit financial crimes (cyber crime)
-global business networks abuse deregulation of paying low wages and neglecting health & safety standards
what are criticism of the marxist approach (TAYLOR) on globalisation and crime?
- not all poor people turn to a life of crime
-Taylor’s theory doesn’t take into account individual meanings behind actions.
how do Rothe and Friedrichs argue that the international monetary fund (IMF) commits ‘crimes of globalisation’
- by imposing pro-capitalist ‘structural adjustment programmes’ on poor countries
- requiring them to cut public spending
- causing unemployment
according to CAIN, how do IMF and World Bank cause widespread social harms?
-by western corporations expanding into countries= creates countries for crime by cutting of welfare
according to HOBBS & DUNNINGHAM, how is crime organised in regards to globalisation?
- economic changes have brought about new crime opportunities which involve networking with ppl globally
according to HOBBS & DUNNINGHAM, what is a glocal system?
- global criminal economies begin to trade in local areas
- new types of gang structures have emerged to facilitate new global markets, particularly w/ international drug deals
- involves individuals acting as a ‘hub’; a loose-knit network forms
according to GLENNY, what is the McMafia?
-criminal organisation in Eastern Europe e.g. Russia= an illustrative example of the social, cultural and political changes since the fall of communism.
= many ex-KGB have morphed into criminal gangs with global connections.
how did the collapse of communism enable the russian ‘oligarchs’ to emerge?
-disorder due to deregulation of financial markets
-low price of resources like coal, steel and mineral in russia were bought up by corrupt officials
= sold them on western markets, making billions in profits.
= protection from disorder= the russian gov. turned to new mafia
- they were vital for the entry of the new Russian capitalist class= oligarchs into the world economy
what is meant by green crime?
- crimes committed against the environment
what are the 2 types of green crime according to SOUTH?
-primary: any action that directly harms the environment e.g. dumping waste in a river
-secondary: where an individual indirectly harms the environment e.g. purchasing products that contribute to deforestation.
according to BECK, what is a ‘global risk society’ ?
- most threats to human well-being & the ecosystem are now human-made rather than natural disasters-> ‘manufactured risks’
- many of these involve harm to the environment & have serious consequences for humanity (climate change)
- these risks are increasing on a global scale, hence late modern society is a ‘global risk society’
how does Mozambique explain the global nature of human man-made risk?
- due to wildfires in Russia= damaged grain crops= reduced exports to Mozambique
-> the price for bread inc.= caused hostility/rioting
what are the 2 types of criminology in terms of green crime?
-traditional criminology: narrow focus on any activity that breaches a law that protects the environment
-green criminology: radical focus on green crime should include all types of environmental harm, regardless of legislation.
what is a criticism of traditional crime in terms of green crime?
- laws are shaped by the ruling class who neglect environmental issues as it’s not in their best interest to protect it.
according to WHITE, what is the proper subject of green criminology?
- criminologists should regard any action which harms the environment as a criminal act
what is zemiology?
- ‘the study of harms’
-looks beyond conventional legal notions of crime and draws attention to social harms
(criticism of green criminology)
(criticism of green criminology) why is it more difficult to prosecute green crimes?
- countries have different interpretations of what they believe counts as green crime
-local laws will fail to deal w/ the global environmental impact
what’s similarity between green criminology and marxism?
- it raises concerns about how the law works to protect the interests of the wealthy at the expense of the environment
what are the 2 views of harm?
-anthropocentric: human-centred; humans are more important than environmental needs (majority rule)
-ecocentric: humans and environment are just as important as each other= both are interdependent; we need to protect the environment in order to protect human life
what are 3 examples of primary green crime?
-crimes of air pollution:
according to WALTER- 2x as many people die from air pollution induced problems than from 20 years ago
-crimes of deforestation-> 1960-1990: 1/5 of the world’s tropical rain forest was destroyed
-crimes of water pollution- 25 million a year die from drinking contaminated water
what are 2 examples of secondary green crime?
- environmental discrimination: ROSOFF ET AL- $2500 a ton dispose of toxic waste in US but in poorer countries only $3 a ton
-state violence against oppositional groups: 1985 french secret service blew up a Greenpeace ship- killed a crew member onboard
what are 3 main criticisms of green criminology?
- hard to define absolutely counts as a criminal act
-based on sociologist opinions, morals & values instead of objective facts= causes BIAS
-shows how laws may fail to address the causes and effects of green crime
how do GREEN & WARD define state crime?
- ‘illegal or deviant activities perpetrated by, or with the complicity of, state agencies’
e.g. the holocaust
why is it difficult to find the scale of state crime?
- can be difficult to investigate due to the gov. power to redefine laws
what is the role of the state in law-making?
- can make laws to conceal crimes or avoid defining some actions as criminal
what are the 4 categories of state crime according to McLaughin?
- political- corruption/censorship
- economic- cutting costs of health and safety/ violations
- social& cultural- e.g. institutional racism
- crimes by security & police forces (genocide/torture/wars)
what was the study of the state-led genocide in Rwanda?
- under the Belgians, the minority Tutsis were used to rule over the Hutu majority
- after independence, elections brought the Hutus to power
- by the 1990s, economic & political crisis led to civil war
- 800,000 Tutsis were slaughtered by state-backed Hutu militia
why was the challenger space shuttle disaster an example of state-initiated crime?
- was run by state-run agency: NASA and they cut costs therefore didn’t regulate for final checks properly= negligence
=led to 7 dead w/ unsafe take-off
what are 2 types of war crime?
- illegal wars = e.g falsely claiming that a war is in self-defence (e.g. american wars in Iraq & Afghanistan )
- crimes committed during war or its aftermath = e.g illegally seizing an occupied countries assets; torture of prisoners; bombing civilians
according to WHYTE, what kind of crimes were committed in the aftermath of the Iraq war?
- post-war colonism -> privatisation of the economy = use cost-plus contracts
according to KRAMER & MICHALOWSKI, what crimes were committed in the Iraq war
- the torture of combatants, the targeting of civilians and the various crimes perpetrated by private military companies
according to CHAMBLISS, what is state crime and why is it a problem?
- ‘acts defined by law as criminal & committed by state officials in pursuit of their jobs as state representatives’
-ignores the power to make laws and avoid criminalising state actions
how does MICHALOWSKI define state crime?
- ‘legally permissable acts whose consequences are similar to those of illegal acts’
according to HILLYARD ET AL, what is zemiology & why should it be used to study state crime?
- study of harms- whether or not they are against the law
- this prevents states from ruling themselves ‘out of court’ by making laws that allow them to misbehave
what are 2 criticisms of zemiology?
- what is the level of harm?
- who decides what is a harm?
according to the labelling theory, what constitutes a crime?
- whether an act is a crime depends on whether the audience defines it as such
- this recognises that state crime is socially constructed & so what people regard as a crime can very over time & between groups
according to KAUZLARICH, what is a criticism for labelling theory?
- people see war as harmful BUT NOT AS CRIMINAL e.g. from anti-Iraq protestors
how might the media affect the public’s opinion of war?
- media may also be used to persuade the public view
according to ROTHE & MULLINS define state crime and what is an advantage of it?
- any action by or on behalf of a state that violates international law and/or a state’s own domestic law
- this has the advantage of using globally agreed definitions of state crime
- it is also intentionally designed to deal with state crime
according to STRAND & TUMAN, how do they show social construction of international laws?
- international law can be manipulated e.g. veto powers
what’s the difference between natural rights and civil rights?
- natural rights: rights by virtue of existing e.g. life, liberty and free speech
-civil rights: equal social opportunities and protection under the law, regardless of race, religion e.g. right to vote, privacy, fair trial and education
according to SCHWENDINGERS, how should state crime be defined?
‘-state organisational deviance involving the violation of human rights. ‘
- like the zemiology ‘harms’ approach, their view is an example of transgressive criminology
according to RISSE ET AL, what is an advantage of SCHWENDINGER’S definition?
- states care about human rights
how is SCHWENDINGER’S approach an example of transgressive criminology?
- it focuses on actions that cause harm rather than strictly activities that are against the law
according to COHEN, what is a criticism of SCHWENDINGERS?
- some acts of human rights abuse are not criminal e.g economic exploitation.
- countries cover up/ try to legitimise their human rights crimes.
- democracies often use complex laws to legitimise acts of torture (eg USA - Guantanamo Bay)
according to ADORNO ET AL, what is an authoritarian personality?
- a willingness to obey the orders of superiors without question.
why can state crimes be seen as crimes of obedience?
-state crimes are a crime of conformity as they require obedience to a higher authority.
-many people are willing to obey even if it involves harming others which plays a part of the role into which individuals are socialised.
according to GREEN & WARD, how do individuals overcome the norms that prevent them from committing state crime?
- in order to overcome norms against use of cruelty, individuals who become torturers often have to be re-socialised
what did KELMAN & HAMILTON, discover about crimes of obedience?
- Authorisation - where ‘acts’ are ordered/ approved by authority
- Routinisation - pressures to turn an act into a routine that can be performed in a detached manner
- Dehumanisation - when enemy is portrayed as not human e.g. through propaganda
according to BAUMAN how did features of a modern society: A DIVISION OF LABOUR make the holocaust possible?
-each individual had a role, so no one felt personally responsible.
according to BAUMAN how did features of a modern society: BUREAUCRATISATION make the holocaust possible?
-normalised the killing by making it a rule-governed routine job, allowed for dehumanisation of victims
according to BAUMAN how did features of a modern society: INSTRUMENTAL RATIONALITY make the holocaust possible?
-rational, efficient methods are used to achieve goal (murder)
according to BAUMAN how did features of a modern society: SCIENCE & TECH. make the holocaust possible?
-availability of resources e.g. railways to transport victims and industrially produced gas
what are COHEN’S 3 stages of denial?
-states go to great efforts to conceal or justify their human rights crimes/ re-label them not as crimes.
-He proposes a ‘spiral of state denial’ as the complex way democratic states legitimise their actions:
-Stage 1 - ‘It didn’t happen’
-Stage 2 - ‘If it did happen, it was something else’
-Stage 3 - ‘Even if it is what you say it is, it was justified’
what are the 5 techniques of neutralisation according to COHEN?
- denial of victim - they are terrorists, they’re used to violence
- denial of injury - they started it/it’s self defence
- denial of responsibility - just obeying orders
- condemning the condemners - they are picking on/victimising us because of our beliefs
- Appealing to higher loyalty, we are serving a bigger cause and sacrifices are inevitable
what are 3 criticisms of the explanations of state crime?
-there’s not always a division of labour (e.g. Rwanda case study)
-importance of ideology - groups are already being identified as inferior/ subhuman
-racist ideology over a decade= led to agreement w/ holocaust
