BELIEFS: THEORIES OF RELIGION Flashcards
what is society’s most basic need and how is order possible in society according to functionalists?
-social order and social solidarity
-made possible through the existence of value consensus
DURKHEIM: what is the sacred and the profane?
-the sacred: evokes a strong feeling in people that binds them to their community e.g. religious symbols/practices
-the profane: are ordinary and mundane
what is the significance of the TOTEM in clan worship?
-totems= are sacred; symbolise the clan and are ‘visible form of God’
-the totem symbolises God and society- inspires feelings of awe in clan mergers
what is the collective conscience?
-when people worship God, they are really worshipping society and this encourages social order and social solidarity
-religion performs an important function for the individual - makes us feel part of something greater than ourselves
how do rituals reinforce the collective conscience?
-regular acts of collective worship play a crucial role in ensuring society’s survival reaffirms support, shared values and beliefs
what are cognitive functions of religion?
-shaping our thoughts e.g. with concept of time
-share same categories of thoughts
Religion = source of our cognitive capacities (ability to reason)
Religion provides the concepts & categories we need for understanding the world & communicating
DURKHEIM & MAUSS - religion provides basic categories like time, space & causation
what are 3 criticisms of DURKHEIM’S view on religion?
-creates conflict e.g. Israel and Palestine demonstrates religion creates a dysfunctional society as it can be seen as a negative force/ an instrument of oppression
-society becoming more secular=decline collective worship
-increase in religious pluralism as we live in a large scale complex society with various religions
MALINOWSKI (1945) (study of psychological functions)
-Religion helps ppl cope w/ emotional stress that would otherwise undermine social solidarity
Performs this role in two situations:
- where the outcome is important but uncontrollable & uncertain
- at times of life crises
MALINOWSKI: what are 2 types of situations he suggests religion promotes social solidarity?
Study of the Trobriand Islanders - contrasts lagoon & ocean fishing
Lagoon fishing = safe
Ocean fishing = dangerous & is accompanied by ‘canoe magic’, rituals to ensure a safe expedition
These rituals give a sense of control, which eases tension, gives confidence & reinforces group solidarity
MALINOWSKI: rites of passage at times of crisis
-Events like birth, puberty, marriage & death = potentially disruptive changes and can cause social solidarity to weaken, so that’s why we have rite of passage, to help people deal w/ these changes
Funerals reinforce solidarity among survivors & notion of life after death comforts them by denying the fact of death
PARSONS: two essential functions of religion?
Religion creates & legitimates society’s norms & values by sacralising them - promotes value consensus & solidarity
- e.g. Protestantism sacralising American values of individualism and meritocracy
Religion provides a source of meaning & answers ‘ultimate’ qs about life - these may undermine society’s values, but by answering such qs, religion helps people adjust & it maintains stability
BELLAH (1970): civil religion
-civil religion= having faith in an organisation /a society in a religious like way; attaching sacred qualities to that society
-ignores religion as a source of division
marxists and religion:
Religion = a feature only of class-divided society, it justifies exploitation & inequality
In an equal, classless society, there’s no need for religion & it will disappear
-capitalism creates dehumanising conditions= the exploited turn to religion
how does religion act as an ideological weapon?
- that it’s harder for people to get into heaven
-used by r/c to legitimate suffering of w/c as inevitable & God-given
‘it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God’ - ISA are deceiving the proletariat to make it seem that they will benefit by going to heaven, making capitalism appear good - religion taking the side of the proletariat.
what did LENIN mean by the claim that religion is “a spiritual gin”?
-LENIN - religion as ‘spiritual gin’ that confuses w./c and keeps them where they are
- r/c use religion to manipulate masses & prevent revolution
Religion legitimate power & privilege of r/c by making their position seem God-given
how does religion legitimate the power and privilege of the dominant class ?
Religion misleads the w/c into believing they’ll be rewarded in the afterlife - creates false consciousness as a distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from acting to change their situation
MARX: religion as a product of alienation
-MARX - religion = product of alienation
Workers = alienated under capitalism, bc they don’t own or control anything & they repeat a monotonous task
Religion = form of consolation under dehumanising conditions - ‘it is the opium of the people. It is the sigh of the oppressed creature’
- therefore offers an illusionary happiness - after-life that distracts them from the cause= capitalism
what are 3 criticisms of marxist view?
- ignores the positives of religion e.g. religion has improved conditions e.g. in education = more opportunities
-doesn’t explain how religion exists in all societies so isn’t just a capitalist society
-is unscientific, lacks evidence and can’t be proven/tested
how do feminists regard religion?
- reflects the inequality between men and women
-it perpetuates/reinforces gender inequality
-religious beliefs function as patriarchal ideology that legitimises female subordination. e.g predominantly male leaders: Judaism and Catholicism
what is the liberal feminist stance on religion?
-certain elements remain oppressive= males are still seen as superior within religion,
-however, change is occurring. e.g. incline in female priests. =acceptance of progress, yet other areas still require change and improvement.
what is the radical feminist stance on religion?
-women continue to be oppressed by religion and there has been no progress.
-patriarchy needs to be overturned - a revolutionary approach is necessary.
what is the marxist feminist stance on religion?
Religion legitmises capitalism and patriarchy, both of which oppress women.
what is the difference feminist stance on religion?
-each women’s experiences are different, women are oppressed by sexuality, ethnicity, class, age and disability.
e.g. the experience of a western white woman, differs to that of a Muslim woman.
how do religious organisations demonstrate patriarchy?
(ARMSTRONG)
-leadership roles are mostly male dominated e.g. only men can become cardinals in Catholicism
how do places of worship demonstrate patriarchy?
(ARMSTRONG)
-in Mosque’s women are separated from men
- women are unable to pray during menstruation (same for Hinduism).
how do sacred texts demonstrate patriarchy?
(ARMSTRONG)
-e.g. Eve - picked the forbidden fruit, women are seen as the sinners and are therefore they are to blame, was called the fall from Grace.
Mary Magdalene: helped Jesus cause, witness to the resurrection and burial of Jesus. Somehow labelled as a prostitute, shaming her.
how do religious laws and customs demonstrate patriarchy?
(ARMSTRONG)
-religious dress+ dressing more conservative= restrictive
-traditional and arranged marriages
-gender roles= can’t leave the house to work
according to Armstrong in what ways has the position of women within religion changed?
-early religions had placed women at the centre
-e.g. earth mother goddess, fertility cults, female priesthoods
-but monotheistic religions saw the establishment of a single all-powerful male god instead
how do some women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect? (EV.)
-women dress more modestly to gain more respect= more power
-woodhead (2009)= women can use religion to gain greater freedom and respect
what are piety movements and which women are most likely to join them? (Pentecostalism) EV.
- they’re conservative movements which support traditional teachings about women’s role, modest dress, prayer and bible study.
e.g a strongly held belief among Pentecostals is that men should respect women.
-rinaldo= women being empowered because of religion= can gain greater status and respect for their role in the private sphere of the home
what are liberal protestant movements? (EV.)
-Quakers - often committed to gender equality and women playing lead roles.
e.g unitarian ministers are female.
CofE: female priests since 1992.
(1/3 of priests in protestant churches are female)
how is religion a conservative force and what are the individual perspectives on this?
-religion as a conservative force= ‘keeping the status quo’
-functionalism= value consensus promotes social solidarity
-marxism= legitimises inequality and exploitation (discourages change)
-feminism= legitimises patriarchal power and women’s subordination
e.g. traditional gender roles are reinforced and views around marriage are sacred
