Exam 3: G.I. and Metabolism Flashcards
What is the G.I. System from mouth to anus?
Alimentary canal
What are the functions of the G.I. system?
Food ingestion, propulsion, digestion, absorption, and defecation
What is the elimination of wastes called?
Defecation
What lines the lumen from mouth to anus and is the deepest layer?
Mucosa
What does mucosa secrete?
Mucus, enzymes, hormones
What does the mucosa do?
Secretes substances, absorbs nutrients, protects from pathogens
What tissues line the stomach to rectum?
Simple columnar epithelium
What tissues line the oral cavity and esophagus?
Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
What type of tissue lines the lamina propria?
Areolar connective tissue
What is the smooth muscle that helps increase surface area and causes minute movement for intestinal functions?
Muscularis mucosa
What is the submucosa made of?
Areolar connective tissue with vessels and nerves
What is the muscularis externa comprised of?
2 layers of smooth muscles (circular and longitudinal)
What does the muscularis externa do?
Push food along the tract
What is the outermost/most superficial layer of the G.I?
Serosa
What type of tissue is the serosa made of?
Simple squamous epithelium
What type of membrane is the serosa?
Mesothelium
What is the particular kind of serosa that lines the viscera called?
Visceral peritoneum
What is the mesothelium that lines the abdominal wall called?
Parietal peritoneum
What layer of serosa produces fluid?
Parietal peritoneum
What stimulates the G.I. tract?
Vagus nerve (parasympathetic nervous system)
Does the stomach stretch or contract in the presence of food?
Stretch
What is the series of intrinsic neurons located in the G.I tract?
Enteric nervous system
What controls glands and the muscularis mucosa?
Submucosal nerve plexus
Where is the submucosal nerve plexus?
The submucosa
What controls movement of the intestines?
Myenteric nerve plexus
Where is the myenteric nerve plexus?
Between the circular and longitudinal muscles of the muscularis externa
What are the two components of the enteric nervous system?
Submucosal nerve plexus
Myenteric nerve plexus
What is motility?
Movement
What is motility of the intestines called?
Peristalsis
What is taking food in?
Ingestion
What is the process of chewing?
Mastication
What muscles are involved in mastication?
Temporalis, masseter, pterygoids
Where does digestion begin?
The mouth
What in saliva begins digestion?
Amylase/ptyalin
What does amylase/ptyalin break down?
Starch
What is starch broken down into?
Smaller carbohydrates, and eventually, glucose molecules
What is amylose?
A plant starch
How many muscles are in the tongue?
9
What anchors the tongue to the floor of the mouth (to prevent “swallowing of the tongue” or its posterior movement?
Lingual frenulum
What are projections containing most of the taste buds?
Papillae
What are the smallest papillae on the dorsum of the tongue to give it friction?
Filiform
Which projection on the tongue does not have taste buds?
Filiform
What are the larger “mushroom shaped” projections scatted over the dorsal surface of the tonuge?
Fungiform
Which are the largest papillae?
Circumvallate
How many circumvallate do we have, and where are they?
10-12 near the back of the tongue
What projections are along the sides of the tongue?
Foliate
Do the tastebuds increase or decrease in function as you age?
Decrease
What do lipases do in saliva?
Begin digesting various lipids
What does mucus do in saliva?
Lubricate food
What does lysozyme do in saliva?
Kills microbes
What are the IgA in saliva?
Antibodies (that are also found in breast milk)
What is the purpose of defensins in saliva?
Antimicrobial
What salivary gland is just in front of the earlobe?
Parotid gland
What salivary gland is on the body of the manible?
Submandibular gland
What salivary gland is on the floor of the mouth?
Sublingual gland
What nervous system stimulates the G.I. system and with what neurostransmitter?
Parasympathetic with Acetylcholine
What does atropine do and when would it be used?
Inhibits the G.I. system, would be used as a preoperative
What is it called when swallowing is voluntary first, the involuntary takes over?
Deglutition
What is it called when waves of smooth muscle contractions propel food along the G.I. tract?
Peristalsis
What is it called when you purge toxins like too much ethanol?
Vomiting
What region of the stomach is the first part connected to the esophagus?
Cardiac
What region of the stomach is on the top, rounded area to the left of the cardia?
Fundus
What region of the stomach is the largest and the main part?
The body
What part of the stomach connects to the small intestine?
Pyloric
What does the stomach activate?
Pepsin and lipases
What does the stomach break down?
Connective tissue and cellulose
What is cellulose?
Plant cell wall, or fiber
What does the stomach convert?
Fe+++ into the absorbable form Fe++
What does the stomach do to microbes?
It kills some ingested microbes
What are the folds in the stomach to increase surface area?
Rugae
What is the contents of the stomach called?
Chyme
What is the pH of the stomach? Is it basic or acidic?
pH: 2-3
Very acidic
What cells are the mucus cells in the stomach?
Goblet
What cells in the stomach produce hydrochloric acid (HCl)?
Parietal or oxyntic cells
What is hydrochloric acid (HCl) also known as?
Stomach acid
What receptors do histamine bind to in the stomach?
Type 2 histamine receptor
What happens when histamine binds to type 2 histamine receptors?
Proton pumps move cytoplasm to the cell membrane
What do proton pumps do in the stomach?
Actively pump H+ ions into the lumen
What does the proton pump exchange H+ ions for?
K+
What type of transport is seen in proton pumps?
Counter transport (secondary active)
What does H+ and Cl- make?
HCl (stomach acid)
Where is HCl made?
In the gastric lumen
What type of transport is the chloride shift?
Counter transport (secondary active)
What enzyme is used in the chloride shift?
Carbonic anhydrase
In the stomach, what does carbonic anhydrase do in the chloride shift?
The reaction produces H+ (instead of removing it)
Where does bicarb go in exchange for the chloride ion in the chloride shift?
Bicarb: pumped from the parietal cell to plasma
Where does chloride go in exchange for the bicarb ion in the chloride shift?
Chloride: enters the gastric lumen to combine with H+
What is secreted by parietal cells allowing the intestines to absorb vitamin B12?
Intrinsic factor
What happens if there’s too much stomach acid?
Gastroesophageal reflux (heart burn, etc.)
What heartburn remedy blocks histamine at the H2 receptors of parietal cells?
Histamine receptor type 2 (H2) inhibitors
What do Histamine receptor type 2 (H2) inhibitors do?
Reduce HCl production
What heartburn remedy blocks the H+ pump?
Proton pump inhibitors
What do proton pump inhibitors do?
Reduce production of HCl
Which are more effective in treating heartburn: H2 inhibitors or Proton pump inhibitors?
Proton pump inhibitors
What cells in the stomach produce pepsinogen?
Chief or zymogen cells
What does pepsinogen become in low pH?
Pepsin
What does pepsin do?
Digests proteins into smaller, yet still NON-absorbable, peptides
What cells in the stomach secrete various hormones to regulate digestion?
Enteroendocrine cells
What are the main 3 substances enteroendocrine cells secrete?
Gastrin
Histamine
Somatostatin
What is produced by the small intestines and stomach and stimulates the production of HCl?
Gastrin
Where in the stomach is gastrin produced?
Pyloric glands
What is produced by the stomach to move proton pumps from cytoplasm to the cell membrane where they can go to work?
Histamine
What is produced in the stomach to inhibit gastrin release?
Somatostatin
What is the first, or proximal, section of the small intestine (attaches to the stomach)?
Duodenum
What is the middle section of the small intestine?
Jejunum
What is the last, or distal, end of the small intestine that attaches to the colon?
Ileum
What does the small intestine do?
Absorbs nutrients, secretes fluids
What disease is where your intestines start to release all their fluids?
Cholera
What hormone secreted by the small intestine causes the pancreas to release bicarb and protease into the duodenum?
Secretin
When is secretin released?
In response to low pH entering duodenum
What hormone secreted by the small intestine that causes the stomach to make HCl?
Gastrin
When is gastrin released?
In response to rising pH in the stomach
If antacids neutralize the stomach, thus raising the pH, what might the stomach do?
Make more acid to lower the pH
Why are proton pump inhibitors better?
It doesn’t cause a feedback loop where taking antacids encourages the need for more antacids
What hormone secreted by the small intestine causing the gallbladder to release bile into the duuodenum?
Cholecystokinin
What is cholecystokinin used for/when?
Aiding in lipid digestion when they enter the duodenum
Why are the folds of the intestines important?
They increase the surface area for increased absorption of nutrients
What folds in the stomach are visible to the naked eye?
Plicae circulares and Villi
How much do plicae circulares increase SA by?
3x
How much do villi increase SA by?
10x
What folds in the stomach are microscopic?
Microvilli
How much do microvilli increase SA by?
20x
What is the total increase in SA thanks to the 3 types of folds?
3 x 10 x 20 = 600x
What do carbohydrates break down into?
Monosaccharides
How fast are carbs broken into monosaccharides?
10-20 minutes
What are triglycerides broken down into?
2 fatty acids & 1 monoglyceride
What are proteins broken down into?
Monopeptides (single amino acids)
What are monoglycerides made of?
Glycerol + 1 fatty acid
What is the body’s major detox center?
Liver
What is extramedullary hemopoiesis?
Making blood cells outside of the bone marrow
When does extramedullary hemopoiesis happen?
In cases of bone marrow suppression/disease
Can the liver make blood cells?
Yes
What is gluconeogenesis?
Making glucose from non-carbs, such as proteins
What is glycogenesis?
Combining glucose to make glycogen
Where does gluconeogenesis occur?
Liver
Where does glycogenesis occur?
Liver
What is glycogen?
Animal starch polymer made of glucose molecules
How is glycogen different than amylose?
Glycogen is branched
How does the liver regulate blood glucose?
The liver can release glucose from glycogen under the influence of a hormone
What hormone stimulates the liver to release glucose from glycogen?
Glucagon
Where does glucagon come from in the body? (what cells, and where are they)
Alpha cells of pancreatic islets
Where is glycogen stored?
Liver and muscle
Does the liver increase or decrease plasma glucose levels?
Increase, but releasing glucose from glycogen
What is glycogenolysis?
Breaking down glycogen into glucose, thus releasing glucose to the blood and increasing plasma glucose levels
What is it called when the liver breaks fatty acids into acetyl groups that can be used for metabolism?
Beta oxidation
What is the Cori cycle?
Lactic acid generated in muscles is converted into usable pyruvic acid
Where is HDL and LDL cholesterol produced?
The liver
What % cholesterol is dietary vs hereditary?
15% diet
85% genetics
Where are phospholipids made?
Liver
What is mechanical digestion?
Chewing
What is chemical digestion?
Enzymatic
What layer actually propels the food down the digestive tract?
Muscularis externa
What are the major acid producing cells?
Parietal or oxyntic cells
How many plasma proteins does the liver make?
Over 2000 (pretty much all of them except for antibodies)
What must the liver remove from amino acids before they are broken down further?
Amino group (NH2)
What is the process of removing the amino group called?
Deamination
What is the amino group (NH2) converted to by the liver?
Urea
Where is urea eliminated?
The kidneys
Where is iron stored to be used?
The liver
How does the liver destroy toxins?
By using enzymes
Will repeated exposure to toxins reduce the liver’s functioning?
Yes
What are detoxified by the liver on the “first pass”?
Water soluble compounds taken per os (by mouth)
What is bile made from?
Cholesterol
What does bile do?
Allows for digestion of fats by emulsifying (breaking them down) into tiny droplets
What are the tiny broken down bits of fats called?
Micelles
Where is bile made? Where is it stored?
Made: liver
Stored: gallbladder
What does bile contain from hemoglobin breakdown?
Bilirubin
What is produced by the small intestines due to the presence of fat, and causes the gallbladder to contract forcing bile into the duodenum?
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
What two systems does the pancreas participate in?
Exocrine and endocrine
What does the pancreas do in the exocrine system?
Produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions
What does the pancreas do in the endocrine system?
Produces hormones
Where do the enzymes and ions that the pancreas makes get secreted?
Into the duodenum
What are the cells that make the enzymes and bicarbonate ions in the pancreas?
Acinar cells (acini or acinus)
Where are acinar cells located?
Outside the islets of Langerhans
What pancreatic enzyme digests starch?
Amylase
What 2 pancreatic enzymes digests oligosaccharides into individual glucose molecules?
Dextrinase
Glucoamylase
How many monosaccharides is an oligosaccharide?
3-8 monosaccharides long
What pancreatic enzymes digest maltose, sucrose, and lactose?
Maltase, sucrase, lactase
What do alpha cells in the pancreas produce?
Glucagon
What do beta cells in the pancreas produce?
Insulin
What do delta cells in the pancreas produce?
Somatostatin
What does trypsinogen become?
Trypsin
What does trypsin (made in the pancreas) do?
Digests proteins into smaller, yet still NON-absorbable peptides
What does chymotrypsin (made in the pancreas) do?
Digests proteins into smaller, yet still NON-absorbable peptides
What do peptidases (made in the pancreas) do?
Digests smaller peptides into ABSORBABLE molecules
What are examples of molecules small enough to be absorbed?
Single amino acids or monopeptides
What does carboxypeptidase do?
Breaks off amino acids from the carboxyl end of a polypeptide
What does aminopeptidase do?
Breaks off amino acids from the amino end of a polypeptide
What does dipeptidase do?
Breaks dipeptides into their amino acid components
What do lipases do?
Break triglycerides into 2 free fatty acids and 1 monoglyceride (glycerol attached to 1 fatty acid)
What does ribonuclease do?
Digests RNA
What does deoxyribonuclease do?
Digests DNA
What does the bicarbonate ion do?
Buffers H+ ions
What hormone released by the small intestines encourages bicarbonate ions to be released from the pancreas?
Secretin
Where do the hormones that are released from the pancreas go?
Directly into the blood (not using ducts)
Does glucagon production cause the liver to release glucose, if so, where does it go?
Releases glucose to increase plasma glucose
Does insulin production increase plasma glucose?
NO, it decreases plasma glucose
What does the hormone somatostatin do?
Inhibits growth hormones
What does “emulsify” mean?
Separates/breaks down
What are examples of micelles?
Triglycerides and fat soluble vitamins
What do micelles allow?
Lipids to be absorbed by the epithelium of intestines
Where do micelles go?
Stay in the intestines and then are excreted with feces
Where are triglycerides reassembled?
Smooth ER of the intestinal epithelial cells
Where do compounds go from the smooth ER?
Golgi apparatus, where it is surrounded by phospholipids and proteins
What are chylomicrons?
Small spheres found around the golgi apparatus that allow lipids to enter the intestinal lacteals
What are lacteals?
Tiny lymphatic vessels
What process do lipids use to enter lacteals?
Exocytosis
Where do lipids go from the lacteals?
The thoracic duct
Where does the thoracic duct dump?
Left subclavian vein
Do fats and other lipids pass through the liver for detox before entering the blood?
NO! They go straight to the lymphatics then the blood
What happens if a toddler ingests fat soluble toxins?
The toxins won’t be detoxed in the liver, and will go straight to vital organs
What % of per os water soluble drugs are destroyed after going through the veins and liver?
85-90%
What is the first step of the pathway for per os water soluble compounds?
Intestinal veins
Where do compounds go from the intestinal veins?
Superior mesenteric vein
Where do compounds go from the superior mesenteric vein
Hepatoportal vein
Where do compounds go from the hepatoportal vein?
Liver’s lobules
Where do compounds go from the liver’s lobules?
Liver’s sinusoids
Where do compounds go from the liver’s sinusoids?
Central vein
Where do compounds go from the central vein?
Hepatic veins
Where do compounds go from the hepatic veins?
Inferior vena cava
Where in the liver are water soluble toxins detoxified?
Sinusoids
What is the large intestine called?
Colon
What are the main functions of the colon?
Absorb water, produce bicarbonate, houses gut bacteria
What can cause bicarb loss resulting in acidosis?
Diarrhea
What do gut bacteria help breakdown?
Certain fiber components
What vitamins do gut bacteria help synthesize?
Vitamins B and K
What does gut bacteria help metabolize?
Bile components
What produces flatus or gass?
Gut bacteria
What do gut bacteria profoundly influence?
Physiology, metabolism, nutrition, immune system
What is dysbiosis?
Disruption of gut microbiota
What often causes dysbiosis?
Antibiotics
What is dysbiosis often implicated in?
Inflammatory diseases (like IBS), infections, obesity, autoimmune diseases, and response to cancer treatment
What % of feces are: dead bacteria
30%
What % of feces are: fiber?
30%
What % of feces are: fat from digested epithelial cells and dead bacteria?
10-20%
What % of feces are: inorganic material?
10-20%
What pathology is < appetite?
Anorexia
What pathology is binge eating then self-induced vomiting?
Bulimia
What NS stimulates vomiting, and with what hormone?
Parasympathetic NS, via serotonin
What is projectile vomiting?
Vomiting without retching due to CNS stimulation
What pathology is difficult or infrequent defecation?
Constipation
What can neurogenic damage to the colon cause?
Constipation
Can drugs, such as antidepressants cause constipation?
Yes
Can a sedentary lifestyle, poor diet, and depression cause constipation?
Yes
Excess of what minerals can cause constipation?
Calcium or iron
What pathology is increased frequency and fluid content of feces?
Diarrhea
What type of diarrhea has: hypertonic intestines as with fleet phospha soda?
Osmotic
What is the most common cause of osmotic diarrhea?
Lactase deficiency (cannot absorb lactose, so the intestines become hypertonic and water follows)
What type of diarrhea can be caused by ingestion of non-absorbable synthetic sugars?
Osmotic
What type of diarrhea has: excessive secretion, often due to bacterial enterotoxins?
Secretory
What type of bacteria are often seen in secretory diarrhea?
E. Coli, Cholera
What type of diarrhea has: less time for fluids to be absorbed and loss of neurological motility control, as seen in neuropathy and diabetes?
Increased motility
What type of diarrhea is seen in IBS and ulcerative Colitis or Crohn’s?
Intestinal inflammation
What type of diarrhea has: increased secretions and fluid flow around obstruction that may appear as diarrhea?
Fecal impaction/severe constipation
What is distention?
Swelling of any hollow organ (including intestines) that causes intense pain
What can cause distention?
Gas, inflammatory processes
What is hematemesis?
Blood in vomit
What is hematochezia?
Blood presenting from rectum
What is dark tarry stool that may indicate hemorrhage higher in alimentary canal?
Melena
What is small amounts of blood, not visible without stains, that indicate slow hemorrhage?
Occult blood
What is persistent splashing of gastric contents into the esophagus, where chronic cases can be associated with esophageal cancer?
Gastroesophageal reflux
What is herniation of the gastric fundus or cardiac zone through the diaphragm into the thorax?
Hiatal hernia
Are hiatal hernias often symptomatic?
No, often asymptomatic
What is dysphagia?
Difficulty swallowing, increased reflux, epigastric pain
What is a symptom of hiatal hernias?
Dysphagia
What is decreased muscle tone of the lower esophagus allowing for accumulation of food and esophageal distention?
Achalasia
What is intussuception?
Telescoping of one part of the intestine into another, causes strangulation of blood supply
What is the twisting of intestines called that can cause strangulation of blood supply?
Torsion
What is diverticulosis?
Inflamed herniations of the colon
What group is especially affected by diverticulosis?
Obese peoples over the age of 70
What is loss of motility, especially due to surgery?
Ileus or adynamic
Where are peptic ulcers located?
Lower esophagus, stomach, and duodenum
What habits are peptic ulcers associated with?
Smoking, NSAIDS, alcohol
What diseases are associated with peptic ulcers?
Rheumatoid arthritis, emphysema, cirrhosis of liver
Where are most peptic ulcers?
Duodenum
What causes peptic ulcers?
The bacteria helicobacter pylori
What symptom is associated with peptic ulcers?
Pain 2-3 hours after eating
What is the inflammation of the colon?
Colitis
What is chronic inflammation with ulcerations and scarring of the alimentary canal, especially the ileum?
Chron’s disease
What is chronic inflammation with ulceration and scarring of the colon and retum?
Ulcerative colitis
What is inflammation of the vermiform appendix with swelling, pain, and potential gangrene, perforation, and peritonitis?
Appendicitis
What is accumulation of fluid in peritoneal cavity causing distention as seen in cirrhosis of the liver?
Ascites
What is accumulation of bilirubin due to the liver’s inability to break it down?
Jaundice
What disease has fecal-oral transmission from person to person, fever and usually mild disease?
Hepatitis A
Does hepatitis A usually progress to chronic disease?
No
How is hepatitis B transmitted?
Via body fluids, congenital, and used needles
What is the most common hepatitis worldwide?
Hep B
What can Hepatitis B lead to?
Liver cancer
Is hep B a severe chronic disease?
Yes
What is the most common hepatitis in the United States?
Hep C
What can Hep C lead to?
Liver cancer
Are Hep A, B, and C all viral?
Yes
What is the most common liver disorder in developed countries, associated with adipose tissue in liver, inflammation, tissue damage, and scaring?
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
What is now the number 1 cause for liver transplants?
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
What is a cluster of symptoms and signs putting patients at high risk of morbidity and mortality (increased stroke, diabetes, cardiovascular disease)?
Metabolic syndrome
What are signs of metabolic syndrome?
Increased bp, plasma sugar, body fat (obesity), plasma cholesterol and triglycerides
What % of populations globally are affected by metabolic syndrome?
15-40%
What is all of the chemical processes of an organism?
Metabolism
What is combining/building up the simple compounds into complex such as growth, weight gain, etc?
Anabolism
Does endergonic input energy or output?
Input (absorbs energy)
Does exergonic input energy or output?
Output (gives off energy)
What is breaking complex compounds into simpler ones, such as in digestion?
Catabolism
What is the metabolic norm where an organism is biochemically balanced?
Homeostasis
What is the disruption of homeostasis?
Disease
If not too much carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, all can be…
Broken down into 2 carbon molecules called the acetyl group
What are acetyl groups used for?
To make ATP or be used in anabolic functions
If too much carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, all can be…
Converted into triglycerides to increase the amount of adipose tissue (fat)
What must proteins be converted to before being used to make ATP?
Acetyl groups
What is the process of enzymes breaking peptide bonds to separate the amino acids of a polypeptide?
Hydrolysis
What process is the equivalence of a water molecule to split a bigger molecule up?
Hydrolysis
What is the removal of the amino (amine) group or NH2?
Deamination
What is the NH2 from amino acids excreted as?
Urea
How many kcal in a tablespoon glucose?
40 kcl
How many minutes exercise is 40 kcl (a tablespoon of glucose)?
15 minutes
What % of energy in glucose is used for biosynthesis?
40%
What % of energy in glucose becomes heat?
60%
What is ATP an acronym for?
Adenosine Triphosphate
What happens if you enzymatically cut off one of the phosphate groups (Pi) of ATP?
You release energy and form ADP
What family of enzymes can cut phosphates from ATP or ADP?
ATP-ase
What is the difference between a monomer and a polymer?
Monomer: single molecule
Polymer: long chain of molecules
What are isomers?
Molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural formulas
What is the element all life on earth is based on?
Carbon
Why is carbon unique?
It can make molecules with long chains bonded together in rings or straight
Can carbon bond to other carbons?
Yes
How many covalent bonds does carbon need?
4
How many valence electrons does carbon need?
8
How many single bonds can carbon make?
4
How many double bonds can carbon make?
2
Can carbon make 1 double bond and two single bonds?
Yes
Can carbon make 1 triple bond and 1 single bond?
Yes
What is the most common source of energy to fuel the body?
Carbohydrates
What is the most common carb used for energy?
Glucose
How much kcal/g do carbs provide?
4 kcal/g
What are examples of complex carbs?
Disaccharides and polysaccharides
What is an example of a simple carb?
Monosaccharides
What is the most common lipid used for energy?
Triglyycerides
How much kcal/g do triglycerides provide?
9 kcal/g
What atoms do proteins contain?
Nitrogen
When proteins are broken down, what do they contribute to the production of?
Urea
What atom do nucleic acids contain?
Nitrogen
When broken down, what do nucleic acids contribute to the production of?
Urea
Do all carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids need to be broken down to their simplest monomers to be absorbed by intestines?
Yes
Can carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids be interconverted?
Yes
Can carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids be catabolized to make ATP and anabolized to make adipose tissue?
Yes
What is the chemical formula for glucosedextrose?
C6H12O6
What is the most common monosaccharide in biological systems, universally used by all organisms to acquire energy?
Glucose/dextrose
What are normal levels for glucose/dextrose?
80-100 mg/dL
What is the fruit sugar?
Fructose
What is the sweetest sugar in nature?
Fructose
What is another sugar type he mentioned that isn’t glucose/dextrose or fructose?
Galactose
What are monosaccharides made of 5 carbons?
Pentoses
Where are pentoses seen?
Ribose of RNA and ATP
Deoxyribose of DNA
What are monosaccharides made of 6 carbons?
Hexoses
Where are hexoses seen?
Glucose, fructose, galactose
What are glucose, fructose, and galactose all?
Isomers
What sugar is “table sugar”?
Sucrose
What sugar is “milk sugar”?
Lactose
What sugar is “malt sugar”?
Maltose
What sugar is glucose + fructose?
Sucrose
What sugar is glucose + galactose?
Lactose
What sugar is glucose + glucose?
Maltose
Are sucrose, lactose, and maltose mono, di, or polysaccharides?
Disaccharides
What are the specific plant starches that are digestible?
Amylose and amylopectin
What bonds do the digestible starches have?
Alpha bonds
What plant starches are non-digestable?
Cellulose
What bonds do the non-digestible starches have?
Beta bonds
What animal starch is digestible?
Glycogen
What animal starch is non-digestible?
Chitin
Which have a higher energy yield: lipids or carbs? What are the kcal/g?
Lipids (9 kcal/g) have more than carbs (4 kcal/g)
Do hydrophobic substances like lipids?
Yes, hydrophobic substances are lipophilic
Do lipophilic substances cross membranes?
Yes
Are lipophilic substances fat soluble?
Yes
Are many non-lipid molecules hydrophilic (or lipophobic)?
Yes
Are polar compounds, such as carbs and proteins, hydrophilic/lipophobic or hydrophobic/lipophilic?
Hydrophilic/lipophobic
Are hydrophilic substances water soluable?
Yes
Do hydrophilic substances cross membranes as easily as hydrophobic?
No
What is the surgical procedure for removing adipose tissue?
Liposuction
Are oils liquid or solid at room temperature?
Liquid
Are waxes liquid or solid at room temperature?
Solid
What is cerumen?
Earwax
Are triglycerides fat molecules or fat tissue?
Fat molecules. Fat tissue is adipose
What is the most common lipid used as energy?
Triglycerides
Why are triglycerides good energy sources?
Thermal insulation, shock absorption
What are normal plasma levels of triglyceride?
Below 150 mg/dL
What are saturated fatty acids saturated with?
H+
What do saturated fatty acids lack?
Carbon double bonds (C=C)
Are saturated fatty acids good for you?
NO. Associated with atherosclerosis
Are saturated fatty acids liquid or solid at room temp?
Solid
Are polyunsaturated fatty acids good for you?
Yes
Why do polyunsaturated fatty acids have less H+ than saturated fatty acids?
They have several Carbon double bonds (C=C), so less room for H+ to bind
Are polyunsaturated fatty acids liquid or solid at room temp?
Liquid
Which are found in animal fats: saturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated (the bad kind)
Which are found in plants: Saturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids?
Polyunsaturated (good for you)
What is beta oxidation?
The process where fatty acids are broken down by the liver into acetyl groups (2-carbon units)
Why does beta oxidation happen?
So ATP can be produced from the broken down fatty acids
Where are phospholipids found?
In cell and organelle membranes
What do phospholipids tend to form?
Bilayers
What term means having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties?
Amphiphilic or amphipathic
Are phospholipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
Both! They’re amphiphilic/amphipathic
What part of a phospholipid is hydrophilic/lipophobic?
Glycerol-phosphate head
What part of phospholipid is hydrophobic/lipophilic?
Fatty acid tails
What part of the phospholipid is polar?
Glycerol-phosphate head
What part of the phospholipid is nonpolar?
Fatty acid tail
What substance do phospholipids form? (Answer isn’t bilayer)
Prostaglandins
Describe the shape/structure of steroids
Complex ringed or “cyclic” molecules
What is the precursor to ALL steroid hormones?
Cholesterol
Is cholesterol a steroid?
Yes
What is the precursor to vitamin D3?
Cholesterol
Where is cholesterol?
In the cell membrane
What does the liver do to cholesterol?
Degrades it to make bile
What are anabolic steroids?
The male sex steroids
What is a normal cholesterol level?
<200 mg/dL
Where are lipoproteins produced?
The liver
What do lipoproteins do?
Transport lipids (cholesterol and triglyceride) in the blood
Are steroids considered lipids?
Yes
What are physiologically active, ringed fatty acids?
Eicosanoids
Where do eicosanoids originate from?
Fatty acid tails of cell membrane phospholipids
What acid do eicosanoids come from?
Arachidonic acid
What type of eicosanoid acts as a hormone?
Prostaglandins
What is the enzyme responsible for the production of prostaglandins?
Cyclooxygenase
What causes inflammation, pain, uterine contractions, and is a step in blood clotting?
Prostaglandin
What type of eicosanoid regulates leukocyte activity?
Leukotrienes
What produces leukotrienes?
Leukocytes and mast cells
What type of eicosanoid is produced by platelets causing them to aggregate, thus initiating the clotting process?
Thromboxanes
What drug inhibits prostaglandin synthesis by inhibiting cycloloxygenase?
NSAIDS
Proteins are coded for by at least how many genes?
1
What is a sequence of DNA bases that carry the code for a polypeptide chain?
Genes
What makes antibodies or immunoglobulins?
Leukocytes
The 2,000+ plasma proteins keep the plasma/blood ______ balanced
Osmotically
If your liver fails, there’s a reduction in plasma proteins. What does this do to blood? (Hyper, hypo, isotonic)
Makes the blood hypotonic
What condition is associated with liver disease and hypotonicity (swelling)?
Ascites
What are some of the elements (from the periodic table of elements) proteins contain?
C, H, O, N (some S)
What are the basic building blocks of polypeptide chains/proteins?
Amino acids
How many different amino acids are there?
20
What are the bonds that hold amino acids together?
Peptide bonds
What type of bonds are peptide bonds?
Covalent
What is a polypeptide chain?
A long chain or polymer of amino acids
What is denaturation?
When a protein changes its shape and loses its functioning
What causes proteins to be denatured?
Increase in temperature, reduction of pH
What conditions might denature proteins?
Fevers and acidosis
What do globular proteins look like?
Tangled mass or ball of yarn
What do fibrous proteins look like?
Thin strands
What proteins mark the cells as “self” so the immune system can tell the difference and attack only the bad guys?
Major Histocompatibility Complexes (MHC)
What do Major Histocompatibility Complexes present to the rest of the immune system?
Antigens
What are proteins that mark antigens for destruction?
Antibodies
What are antigens?
Foreign proteins or organisms that cause an immune response
What are proteins that form various types of clots (not blood clots) that “wall off” or sequester infections, etc.?
Clotting proteins
What are over 20 proteins that automatically destroy any antigen that is attached to an antibody?
Complement proteins
What regulatory proteins are produced by endocrine glands?
Hormones
Do endocrine glands have ducts?
No
Do hormones take effect in the same area they are produced?
No
What regulatory proteins are found in the cell membrane and within the cell and are necessary for the hormone or NT to work?
Receptors
What regulatory proteins are defective in type 2 diabetes?
Receptors (they lack insulin receptor proteins)
What regulatory proteins are released by neurons?
Neurotransmitters
When do voltage gated channels open/close?
In response to changes in voltage/charge across the membrane (inside vs outside cell)
When do ligand gated channels open/close?
When a molecule (ligand) binds to the channel
What sort of channels do many drugs and hormones use?
Ligand gated
Which gated channel is like the passage of a nerve impulse?
Voltage gated
What regulatory proteins lower the activation energy, which makes reactions go faster at lower temperatures?
Enzymes
What do most enzyme names end in?
-ase
Are enzymes affected by the reaction they cause?
No, not permanently altered
What is another term for an enzyme?
Protein catalyst
What is the compound an enzyme acts on?
Substrate
What is the location an enzyme binds to its substrate?
Activation site
What is the amount of energy that must be overcome for a reaction to occur?
Activation energy
Can changes in pH and increased temperature make enzymes non-functional?
Yes! It can cause death
What is the catalytic protein component of an enzyme?
Apoenzyme
What is an apoenzyme + cofactor?
Holoenzyme
What is a cofactor?
Non-protein compound that is essential for an enzyme to work
What do coenzymes do?
Transfer electrons from one enzyme to another
Are enzymes specific?
Yes, they will only work on a specific substrate
Are coenzymes all enzymes?
No, some are organic cofactors like niacin and vitamins
What regulatory proteins are produced in response to damaging stimuli (such as heat, low O2), and often prevent other proteins from changing shape (thus preserving their functions)?
Chaperone proteins
What regulatory proteins are endogenous opioids released in response to pain? (causes runner’s high)
Endorphins
What regulatory proteins stimulates the immune system and causes fevers? They are made by lymphocytes
Interleukins
What regulatory proteins stimulate certain leukocytes to attack viruses and/or cancer cells? They are made by leukocytes and fibroblasts
Interferons
What regulatory proteins are hormone-like- they regulate growth, development, and immunity?
Cytokines
What proteins cause movement such as actin and myosin in muscle?
Contractile proteins
What proteins transport other compounds?
Transport proteins
What type of proteins are hemoglobin, myoglobin, and albumen? (their role)
Transport proteins
What do these proteins transport:
Hemoglobin
Myoglobin
Albumen
Hemoglobin- O2 in blood
Myoglobin- muscles
Albumen- steroids
What is the most abundant plasma protein that carries several molecules?
Albumen
Are transport proteins specific or non-specific?
Can be both. An example of specific are estrogen binding proteins that only bind to estrogen
What kind of proteins give shape and form?
Structural
What is a network of proteins that give shape and form to cells? Very important in cell division and intracellular trafficking
Cytoskeleton
What association can be compromised in structural proteins that may allow cancer to spread?
Intracellular proteins associate with extracellular anchoring proteins to keep cells “in place”
Are proteins involved in the restructuring of nerve synapses which result in the storage of memory?
Yes
What do carbs + proteins make?
Glycoproteins
What are polysaccharides + amines attached?
Mucopolysaccharides
What mucopolysaccharide lubricates joints and is found in the vitreous humor of the eye?
Hyaluronic acid
What mucopolysaccharide is a component of cartilage?
Chondroitin sulfate
What mucopolysaccharide is from certain WBCs and is an anticoagulant?
Heparin
What are mucopolysaccharides + proteins?
Mucoproteins
What are mucoproteins a major component of?
Mucus
Where are mucoproteins found?
Lining the G.I. tract, respiratory, and reproductive tracts
What is required for lipoproteins to work?
Protein receptors in cell membranes
What is the process of deriving energy in the form of ATP from nutrients?
Cellular respiration
How many ATPs does 1 glucose molecule make in cellular respiration? (The WHOLE process)
36-38
What is the process of chopping up glucose into 2 3-carbon molecules?
Glycolysis
What happens to the 3-carbon molecules produced in glycolysis?
They are chopped up into 2-carbon molecules known as the acetyl group in an intermediate reaction
What do you get from the intermediate reactions?
An acetyl group, some CO2s, and more stuff used in the electron transport system/chain
What do you get from glycolysis? (Need the # of molecules)
3-carbon molecules and stuff used in electron transport system/chain
What do you get from the Kreb’s cycle?
Some ATPs, most of the CO2 we exhale, and more stuff used in the electron transport system/chain
What is where we make most of the ATP and use the O2 that we breathe using products from the previous metabolic pathways?
The electron transport system/chain or Oxidative phosphorylation
What sort of respiration makes fuel for the Kreb’s cycle? (Aerobic or anaerobic)
Anaerobic (does not require O2)
Where does anerobic respiration occur?
The cell’s cytoplasm
What 2 3-carbon molecules are produced in glycolysis that go to the intermediate reaction?
Pyruvic acids
What 2 molecules are produced in glycolysis and transfer 2 electrons and a H+ to other molecules?
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH)
What is the oxidized form of NADH?
NAD+
What is the reduced form of NAD+?
NADH
How much H20/metabolic water is produced from glycolysis?
2
How much ATP is produced in glycolysis?
2 (Technically 4, but 2 are used)
What is produced by glycolysis that decreases pH and must be buffered?
H+
What redox reaction has the loss of electrons and energy?
Oxidation
What redox reaction has the gaining of electrons and energy?
Reduction
What happens to the 2 NADHs made during glycolysis?
The NAD+ will pick up the H+ and 2 electrons and pass them to another molecule. These NADHs will go to the electron transport system
Where cannot NADH made in cytoplasm go?
Into the inner part of the mitochondria
How does NADH get their 2 electrons and 1 H+ into the mitochondria?
They pass these molecules to another NAD+ or FAD+ already within the mitochondria
What will be formed if the NADH passes the electrons and H+ to another NAD+?
3 ATPs
What will be formed if the NADH passes the electrons and H+ to a FAD+?
2 ATPs
What is pyruvic acid reduced to when O2 levels are low?
Lactic acid
What does lactic acid cause when exercising or when arteries are clogged?
Pain (in the chest: angina pectoris)
What is the cori cycle?
When lactic acid is changed back to pyruvic acid
Where does the cori cycle take place?
The liver
What is it called when yeast utilizes 1 glucose to produce 2ATP + 2CO2 + ethanol?
Alcoholic fermentation
What is the metabolic reaction yeast primarily uses?
Glycolysis
When O2 levels are higher, what do pyruvic acids do?
Go on to the intermediate reaction
Is glycolysis an efficient use of glucose?
No, only 2 ATPs are made
How many times does the Kreb’s cycle occur for the full net gain of 36-38 ATPs?
2 times (one for each acetate)
How do the pyruvic acids get ready for Kreb’s cycle?
Chopping the 3rd carbon off (making CO2), thus turning the pyruvic acid into an acetate ion (only 2 Cs)
Where does the intermediate reaction take place?
Matrix of the mitochondria
What are the products of the intermediate reaction?
CO2, NADH, H+, Acetate ion or acetyl group
How many ATPS does the intermediate reaction result in?
15 ATPs (3 from the NADH and 12 from the acetate that enters the Kreb’s cycle)
What are other names for the Kreb’s cycle?
Tricarboxylic acid cycle or citric acid cycle
Where does the Kreb’s cycle take place?
Matrix of mitrochondria
What does each acetate ion attach to in Kreb’s cycle?
Each acetate ion attaches to a Co-enzyme A to make Acetyl Co-enzyme A
Where do the remaining carbons go in the Kreb’s cycle?
Both are lost as CO2
How much NADH is made in the Kreb’s cycle that goes to the electron transport system?
3 NADHs
What does the Kreb’s cycle produce that is converted into ATP?
1 GTP
What molecule is also a product of the Kreb cycle that goes to the electron transport system? (It is oxidized and reduced just like NAD+ and NADH)
1 FADH2 (Flavine adenine dinucleotide)
How many times does Kreb’s cycle occur for 1 glucose?
2x
How many ATPs do all of the products in the Kreb’s cycle indirectly result in?
12
Where do all 6 carbons from glucose go?
Lost as CO2
Where does oxidative phosphorylation/electron transport chain/electron transport system take place?
On the membranes of the mitochondria’s cristae
What is used in oxidative phosphorylation?
The NADHs and FADH2s from earlier reactions
NADHs made in cytoplasm (glycolysis) will result in…
2 or 3 ATPs each
NADHs made in the mitochondria (intermediate rx and Krebs) will result in…
3 ATPs each
FADH2s made in the mitochondria (intermediate rx and Krebs) will result in…
2 ATPs each
What is the process where all the H+ produced are pumped out of the mitochondrial matrix into the outer chamber (between inner and outer membranes)?
Chemiosmosis
What happens to the H+ pumped out in chemiosmosis?
They diffuse back in through special proteins in the cristae
What happens when the H+ diffuse back in through special proteins in the cristae?
ATP synthase activates and makes ATP
What is the final electron and proton acceptor allowing respiration to continue?
The oxygen we breath! This is why we need oxygen
What is oxidative phosphorylation summed up as in an equation?
ADP + Pi –> ATP
In the presence of O2, you add a phosphate to ADP to make ATP
What metabolic pathway produces Ribose-5-Phosphate and NADPH?
Pentose phosphate pathway
Where does pentose phosphate pathway occur?
In the cytoplasm
Is the pentose phosphate pathway anabolic or catabolic?
Anabolic (building complex compounds from simpler ones)
What are products made from the pentose phosphate pathway used for?
Biosynthesis of molecules
What is Ribose-5-phosphate used for?
To make DNA and RNA
What is NADPH used for?
Neutralizing ROSs/free radicals, and in the biosynthesis of more complex molecules
What is the oxidized form of NADPH?
NADP+
What is the reduced form of NADP+?
NADPH
What can NADP+ be used for?
Donating electrons and hydrogens
What is donating electrons also known as?
Reducing power (as seen in neutralizing ROSs)
What is the energy per unit time needed for bodily function (the # of calories needed to maintain basic life functions at rest)?
Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
How do you measure basal metabolic rate (BMR)?
In a clinical setting. Continuous monitoring and testing after 12 hours fasting and 8 hours sleep
What does basal metabolic rate (BMR) consider?
CO2 production and O2 consumption through calorimetry
Does BMR differ with age and gender?
Yes
Does BMR increase or decrease with age?
Decrease
How do you calculate body mass index (BMI)?
Body mass/height^2
What is a method of estimating a person’s weight status by only using height and weight?
BMI
What units are BMI measured in?
Kg/m^2
What are limitations to BMI?
Abdominal obesity (clinically more associated with disease), short stature, high muscle mass
What are organic compounds needed for homeostatic balance of metabolism?
Vitamins
Are these vitamins fat soluble or water soluble? A, D, E, K
Fat soluble
What is vitamin A needed for?
Eye, bone, immune function
What is vitamin D needed for?
Ca++ absorption, bone growth
What is vitamin E needed for?
Antioxidant
What is vitamin K needed for?
Clotting blood
What can deficiencies in vitamin A cause?
Night blindness, general epithelial damage, immune dysfunction
What can deficiencies in vitamin D cause?
Rickets, cardiovascular disease, cancer, asthma, decreased cognition
What is Rickets?
Demineralization of bones
What can deficiencies in vitamin E cause?
Anemia
What can deficiencies in vitamin K cause?
Hemorrhaging/inability to clot
Why does coumadin/warfarin work as a poison?
Blocks vitamin K, thus causing internal bleeding
Are these vitamins fat soluble or water soluble? B1, B2, B3, B7, B9, B12, C
Water soluble vitamins
What is another name for vitamin B1?
Thiamine
What is another name for vitamin B2?
Riboflavin
What is another name for vitamin B3?
Niacin
What is vitamin B1 needed for?
Carbohydrate metabolism
What is vitamin B2 needed for?
Production of FADH2 (needed for metabolism) and RBCs
What is vitamin B3 needed for?
Production of NADH (needed for metabolism) and cholesterol
What is a cardiovascular/nervous system disease caused by lack of vitamin B1/thiamine?
Beriberi
What is another name for vitamin B7?
Biotin
What is another name for vitamin B9?
Folic acid
What is vitamin B7 needed for?
Cell growth, metabolism of fatty acids, production of RBCs
What is vitamin B9 needed for?
Production of DNA and proteins
What can deficiencies in vitamin B9/folic acid cause?
Poor growth, gingivitis, appetite loss, shortness of breath, GI problems, metal deficits
Neural tube defects in fetuses
What is another name for vitamin B12?
[Cyano]cobalamin
What is another name for vitamin C?
Ascorbic acid
What is vitamin B12 needed for?
Fatty acid oxidation, nerve function, production of DNA/RNA, RBC production
What is vitamin C needed for?
Collagen formation in CT and teeth, wound healing
What can deficiencies in vitamin B12 cause?
Pernicious anemia and nerve cell damage
What can deficiencies in vitamin C cause?
Gingivitis, bleeding gums, scurvy
What are other important minerals/electrolytes for metabolism?
N+, K+, Ca++, PO4-, Mg++, Cl-, Fe++, Zn++, Cu, I, S, F, Mn, Co, Se, Ch, Mo
Do muscles release glycogen into the blood?
No, they hold on to it. The liver will let it go
