Exam 3 Flashcards
1
Q
Functions of the Kidney
A
- Eliminates nitrogenous waste
- Regulates blood ionic composition
- Regulates blood pH
- Regulates blood volume
- Releases erythropoietin and calcitriol
- Excretes wastes and foreign substances
- Detoxifies free radicals and certain drugs
2
Q
Glomerulus
A
Ball of capillaries in the renal corpuscle
3
Q
Glomerular Capsule/Bowman’s Capsule
A
Performs the first step in filtration of blood to form urine
Located in the renal corpuscle
4
Q
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
A
Beginning of the nephron
Regulates the pH of the filtrate by exchanging hydrogen ions for bicarbonate ions
Secretes creatinine
5
Q
Descending Loop of Henle/Nephron Loop
A
Thin limb
Low permeability to ions and urea, high permeability to water
Water passes by osmosis from tubule to ECF, leaving NaCl
6
Q
Ascending Loop of Henle/Nephron Loop
A
Thick and thin segment
Drains urine into the distal convoluted tubule
Has pumps that cotransport Na, K, and Cl into ECF
7
Q
Distal Convoluted Tubule
A
End of the nephron
Responsible for the reabsorption of sodium, water, and secretion of hydrogen potassium
8
Q
Collecting Duct
A
- Consists of a series of tubules and ducts that connect the nephrons to the ureter
- Participates in electrolyte and fluid balance through reabsorption and excretion (regulated by aldosterone)
- Concentrates urine
9
Q
Pathway Flow of Glomerular Filtrate
A
- Glomerular capsule (capsular filtrate)
- PCT (tubular fluid)
- Nephron loop
- DCT
- Collecting duct
- Papillary duct (urine)
- Minor calyx
- Major calyx
- Renal pelvis
- Ureter
- Urinary bladder
- Urethra
10
Q
Ureters Function and Physiological Valve
A
Drain urine from bladder to urethra
Valve is a fold of bladder mucosa by hydrostatic backpressure that prevents the backflow of urine
11
Q
Serosa
A
Tissue of a serous membrane
12
Q
Mucosa
A
Mucous membrane
13
Q
Bladder Location
A
Muscular sac on the floor of the pelvic cavity, inferior to the peritoneum and posterior to the pubic symphysis
14
Q
Bladder Mucosa Epithelium
A
Transitional epithelium
15
Q
Detrusor of Bladder
A
Muscularis that consists of three layers of smooth muscle
16
Q
Trigone of Bladder
A
Openings of two ureters and urethra from this smooth-surfaced triangular area
17
Q
3 Urethral Regions for Males
A
- Prostatic Urethra
- Membranous Urethra
- Spongy Urethra
18
Q
Cystitis
A
Bacterial contamination of the urethra is more common in females because of their shorter urethra and location of orifice
19
Q
Blood Supply to the Nephron
A
Artery –> Capillary –> Artery –> Capillary –> Vein blood flow
20
Q
3 Basic Processes by the Nephron
A
- Glomerular filtration
- Tubular reabsorption
- Tubular secretion
21
Q
Glomerular Filtration
A
Portion of blood plasma is filtered into the kidney
Capillary exchange
22
Q
Tubular Reabsorption
A
Water and useful substances reabsorbed into the blood
Tubule to Blood
23
Q
Tubular Secretion
A
Wastes are removed from the blood and secreted into the urine
Blood to Tubule
24
Q
Difference Between Blood and Glomerular Filtrate
A
Blood plasma contains large molecules and protein that are not present in glomerular filtrate
25
Layers of the Glomerular Filter
1. Fenestrated endothelium
2. Basement membrane
3. Filtration slits
26
Fenestrated Endothelium
Highly permeable, but blood cells do not pass through
27
Basement Membrane
Excludes molecules larger than 8nm
28
Filtration Slits
Numerous extensions known as pedicels
| Large anions cannot pass
29
Podocytes
Cells that wrap around the capillaries of the glomerulus
30
What substances are allowed/not allowed to pass through the glomerular membrane?
Pass: urea, glucose, insulin
| Do not pass: albumin and hemoglobin
31
Glomerular Filtration Rate
10.5-12.5 mL/min
| 180 L/day
32
Reabsorption
Process of reclaiming water and solutes from the tubular fluid and returning them to the blood
Occurs until the plasma level reaches a specific concentration known as the renal threshold
33
What substances are reabsorbed in tubular reabsorption?
1. Sodium
2. Water
3. Glucose/amino acids
4. Potassium
5. Urea
34
Where does reabsorption take place?
In the glomerulus
35
Where is the majority of glomerular fluid reabsorbed?
Proximal convoluted tubule
36
Where is reabsorption a non-hormone-dependent process?
Distal convoluted tubule
37
In what part is reabsorption regulated by hormones?
Collecting duct
38
What is the "transport maximum"/"renal threshold"?
Concentration of a substance dissolved in the blood above which the kidneys begin to remove it into the urine
39
Location of Countercurrent Mechanism
Nephron loop
40
What substances are reabsorbed through the descending nephron loop and ascending nephron loop?
Descending: water
Ascending: sodium, potassium, and chlorine
41
How is the reabsorption related to osmolarity of the interstitial fluid of the medulla?
Descending: raises osmolarity
Ascending: lowers osmolarity
42
What creates high osmolarity of the medullary interstitial fluid?
Water leaves descending limb through osmosis and leaves NaCl behind
43
What substances are secreted into glomerular filtrate?
1. Potassium
2. Hydrogen
3. Ammonium
4. Creatinine
5. Urea
6. Some hormones and drugs
44
Bicarbonate Buffer System Formula
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3 + H+
45
How can the nephrons affect body pH?
Proximal tubule regulates pH by exchanging H+ for bicarbonate until a state of acid/alkaline base is attained
46
Normal Components of Urine
1. Urea
2. Chloride
3. Sodium
4. Potassium
5. Creatinine
47
Causes of Glycosuria
Elevated blood glucose levels
48
Causes of Proteinuria
Caused by kidney disease that can allow proteins such as albumin to leak
49
Causes of Hematuria
UTIs can cause blood cells to leak into the urine
50
Causes of Pyuria
White blood cells can be found in the blood during infections
51
Causes of Ketouria
Metabolic abnormalities, dietary conditions
52
Causes of Bacteriuria
Bacteria in the urine can be caused by UTIs
53
Stimulus for Antidiuretic Hormone
Dehydration, loss of blood volume, and rising blood osmolarity stimulate arterial baroreceptors and hypothalamic osmoreceptors to stimulate the posterior pituitary to secrete ADH
54
Mechanism for Antidiuretic Hormone
ADH makes the collecting duct more permeable to water, so water reenters the blood and tissues instead of the urine
55
Stimulus for Aldosterone
Salt-retaining hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex when blood sodium concentration falls or potassium concentration rises
56
Mechanism for Aldosterone
Acts on the thick segment of the ascending loop, DCT, and cortical portion of the collecting duct to stimulate the segments to reabsorb Na and secrete K
Water and Cl follow Na
57
Stimulus for Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
Secreted by the heart in response to high blood pressure
58
Mechanism for Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
1. Dilates afferent arteriole and constricts efferent arteriole to increase the GFR
2. Antagonizes the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism by inhibiting renin and aldosterone secretion
3. Inhibits secretion of ADH
4. Inhibits NaCl reabsorption
59
Stimulus for Renin
Drop in blood pressure stimulates the release of renin
| Secreted from the juxtaglomerular kidney cells, stimulated by the macula densa
60
Mechanism for Renin
Restores perfusion pressure in the kidneys
| Combines with angiotensinogen to form angiotensin I
61
Stimulus for Angiotensin
Stimulated by renin and low blood pressure
| Causes vasoconstriction and increases blood pressure
62
Erythropoietin
Produced in the kidney
| Stimulated by drop in O2 pressure
63
Dilute Urine Mechanism
Water reabsorbed in the thin limb, ions reabsorbed in the thick limb
64
Osmolarity of Dilute Urine
Low
65
Specific Gravity of Dilute Urine
High
66
Concentrated Urine Mechanism
Principal cells and ADH can remove water from the urine if interstitial fluid has a high osmolarity
Cells in the collecting duct reabsorb more water and urea when ADH is increased
67
Osmolarity of Concentrated Urine
Low
68
Specific Gravity of Concentrated Urine
Low
69
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism
Involved in the regulation of plasma sodium concentration and arterial blood pressure
Ultimately want to raise blood pressure
70
ACE Inhibitors
Prevent the body from creating angiotensin II and relaxes blood vessels and reduces the amount of water reabsorbed by the kidneys
71
Diuretic Effects
Help your body get rid of unneeded water and salt by increasing the amount of salt and water that comes through the urine
72
Diuretic Uses
Used for high blood pressure, heart failure, kidney and liver problems, and glaucoma
73
Fluid Compartments (%)
65% ICF
| 35% ECF
74
Categories of ECF
25% interstitial fluid
8% blood plasma and lymph
2% transcellular fluid
75
Sources of Water
Metabolic and Preformed
76
Metabolic Water Production Formula
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 ---> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
77
Gains of Water in a Day
700 mL/day in food
| 1600 mL/day in drink
78
Losses of Water in a Day
```
1500 mL/day as urine
200 mL/day as feces
300 mL/day as expired breath
100 mL/day as sweat
400 mL/day as cutaneous transpiration
```
79
Hypovolemia
Occurs when proportionate amounts of water and sodium are lost without replacement
80
Dehydration
Occurs when the body eliminates significantly more water than sodium
81
Fluid Excess
Both sodium and water are retained and the ECF remains isotonic
82
Fluid Sequestration
A condition in which excess fluid accumulates in a particular location
83
Electrolyte Concentration in the Blood
Chlorine and sodium are very abundant
84
Electrolyte Concentration in ICF
Potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus are very abundant
85
Three Buffering Systems
1. Bicarbonate Buffer System
2. Phosphate Buffer System
3. Protein Buffer System
86
Phosphate Buffer System Equation
H2PO4 HPO4^2 + H+
87
Protein Buffer System Equation
COOH ---> COO + H+
88
Protein Buffer System
More concentrated than either bicarbonate or phosphate buffers
Amounts for about three-quarters of all chemical buffering in the body fluids
89
Respiratory Control of pH
HCO3 + H+ ---> H2CO3 ---> CO2 + H2O
90
How does buffering control pH?
Buffers resist changes of pH in the body fluids
91
How does secretion control pH?
Secretion involves decreasing the rate of hydrogen ions secreted into the urine and the rate of bicarbonate ion reabsorption
92
Insensible Water Loss
Water loss due to water that passes through the skin and is lost by evaporation
93
Sensible Water Loss
Urination
94
Obligatory Water Loss
The minimal amount of fluid loss from the body that can occur
95
Respiratory Acidosis
Respiratory failure where the lungs cannot remove enough of the carbon dioxide in the body
96
Respiratory Alkalosis
Increased respiration elevates the blood pH beyond the normal range and reduces carbon dioxide levels in the blood
97
Metabolic Acidosis
When the body produces excessive quantities of acid or when the kidneys are not removing enough acid from the body
98
Metabolic Alkalosis
Decreased hydrogen ion concentration, leading to increased bicarbonate
99
Mucosa Cells in the Esophagus
Stratified squamous
100
Mucosa Cells in the GI Tract
Simple columnar
101
What is the muscularis layer composed of?
Skeletal and smooth muscle
102
Serosa
Serous membrane that covers all organs and walls of cavities not open to the outside of the body
103
Enzymes Produced in the Mouth
Amylase
Lingual lipase
Lysozyme
Immunoglobulin A
104
Amylase
Starch digestion
105
Lysozyme
Kills bacteria
106
Immunoglobulin A
Inhibits bacterial growth
107
Components of Saliva
Amylase, lingual lipase, mucus, lysozyme, immunoglobulin A, electrolytes, water
108
Function of Saliva
Moistens, dissolves food for taste, begins starch and fat digestion, cleanses teeth, inhibits bacteria, binds food together in a bolus
109
Sympathetic Stimulation of Salivary Glands
Produce less abundant, thicker saliva with more mucus
110
Parasympathetic Stimulation of Salivary Glands
Abundant, thin saliva rich in enzymes
111
Psychological Stimulus of Saliva
Salivation is increased
112
What keeps swallowed food from going up into the nasopharynx?
Soft palate
113
Three Steps to Swallowing
1. Oral Phase
2. Pharyngeal Phase
3. Esophageal Phase
114
Oral Phase
Bolus is formed in the mouth
115
Pharyngeal Phase
Tongue and soft palate block food and drink, esophagus widens
116
Esophageal Phase
Peristalsis pushes food down, muscle above bolus constricts
117
Three Names for Sphincter at Distal Esophagus
1. Lower esophageal sphincter
2. Cardiac sphincter
3. Gastroesophageal sphincter
118
Function of Cardiac Sphincter
Serves as a valve that contracts to prevent acid reflux and relaxes to allow food to pass
119
Volume of Gastric Juice Per Day
2 quarts per day
120
Mucous Cell
Secretes mucus
121
Regenerative Cell
Divide rapidly
122
Parietal Cell
Secretes HCl, intrinsic factor, and ghrelin
123
Chief Cell
Secretes gastric lipase, pepsinogen
124
Enteroendocrine Cell
Secretes hormones and paracrine messengers
125
Functions of Hydrochloric Acid
1. Activates pepsin and lingual lipase
2. Breaks up connective tissues and plant cell walls
3. Converts ferric ions to ferrous ions
4. Destroys bacteria and pathogens
126
Intrinsic Factor
1. Essential for the absorption of B12 by the small intestine
2. Necessary for RBC production
127
Pepsinogen
Becomes pepsin when converted by HCl
128
Gastrin
Stimulates the secretion of HCl
129
Sympathetic Stimulation on Stomach
Peristalsis is reduced
130
Parasympathetic Stimulation on Stomach
Motility increased; gastric juices secreted
131
Enterogastric Reflex
Gastrin release is shut off and inhibits gastric motility and the secretion of HCl
132
CCK
Secreted from enteroendocrine cells in the duodenum
Stimulated by the introduction of HCl, amino acids, or fatty acids into the stomach
Stimulates release of bile into the small intestine and the release of enzymes from the pancreas
133
The Reason HCl Does Not Bother Gastric Mucosa:
1. Potassium ions diffuse from parietal cells into the lumen
2. Active transport pump brings potassium back into the parietal cells
3. Chloride ions diffuse passively from the cell to the lumen, and their negative charges balance the positive charges of the hydrogen
4. An exchanger on the opposite face of the parietal cell balances the loss of chloride ions by importing chloride ions from the blood in exchange for bicarbonate
5. Water reacts with carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate
134
Chyme
Pulpy acidic fluid that passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food
135
Three Stages of Gastric Secretion and Motility
1. Cephalic Stage
2. Gastric Stage
3. Intestinal Stage
136
Cephalic Stage
Getting the stomach ready
1. Cerebral cortex stimulates parasympathetic nervous system
2. Vagus nerve increases stomach muscle and glandular activity
137
Gastric Stage
Stomach working
1. Nervous control keeps stomach alive
2. Endocrine influences over stomach activity
138
Intestinal Stage
1. Intestinal gastrin stimulates the stomach
| 2. Secretion of CCK and enterogastric reflex inhibit motility
139
Pathway for Bile Secretion
1. Bile capillaries
2. Common hepatic duct
3. Common bile duct
4. Duodenum
140
Purpose of Bile
1. Increases absorption of fats by emulsification and coating the droplets
2. Route of excretion for bilirubin
141
Endocrine Gland
Secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream
142
Exocrine Gland
Secretes products though ducts opening onto an epithelium
143
Endocrine Function of the Pancreas
Secretes insulin and glucagon to control blood sugar levels
144
Exocrine Function of the Pancreas
Pancreatic juice produced by acinar cells
145
Components of Pancreatic Juice
1. Zymogens (trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase)
2. Ribonuclease
3. Deoxyribonuclease
146
Trypsinogen
Activated by enterokinase (brush border enzyme)
147
Chymotrypsinogen
Activated by trypsin
148
Procarboxypeptidase
Activated by trypsin
149
Pancreatic Duct Drains to...
Join common bile duct and perforate the duodenum
150
Small Intestine
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
151
Villi
Columnar enterocytes
Connected by tight junctions
Main function is absorption
152
Microvilli
Known as brush border
| Contain enzymes that complete final stages of chemical digestion
153
Circular Folds
Contain part of the submucosal layer
| Slow the progress of chyme
154
Peristaltic Movement
Rhythmic contractions of the longitudinal muscles in the GI tract
155
Segmentation Contractions
Contractions of circular muscles in the digestive tract to slow the progression of chyme
156
Lacteals
Lymphatic vessels of the small intestine that absorb digested fats
157
Enzymes Produced by Intestinal Cells (enteric)
Maltase
Lactase
Sucrase
Erepsin
158
CCK Role in Pancreatic Secretions
Presence causes the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas
159
Secretin Role in Pancreatic Secretions
Stimulate duct cells to secrete water and bicarbonate
160
Lactose Intolerance
Mucosal cells of the small intestine fail to produce lactase
161
Role of Bacteria in Large Intestine
1. Digest cellulose, pectin, and plant polysaccharides
2. Absorb digested material
3. Synthesize vitamins B and K
162
Greater Omentum
Immune contribution, infection and wound isolation, limits spread of infections
Prevents organs from moving around
163
Mesentery and Mesocolon
Attach to the abdominal wall
| Mesocolon connects intestines together
164
Digestion
Process of breaking down food by mechanical and enzymatic action in the alimentary canal into substances that can be used by the body
165
Absorption
The process of assimilating substances into cells or across tissues and organs through diffusion or osmosis
166
Monomer of Carbohydrate
Monosaccharide
167
Absorbable Form of Carbohydrate
Glucose
168
Carbohydrate Digestion
1. Mouth: salivary amylase
2. Stomach: none
3. Duodenum: broken down into disaccharides and then into monosaccharides
4. Pancreatic secretions: amylase
169
Where and how do absorbable carbohydrates enter the mucosal cell?
1. Absorbed into mucosal cells after the small intestine
| 2. Co-transport via Na+ carrier molecule
170
Where do carbohydrates travel after the mucosal cell?
Hepatic portal vein
171
Monomer of Protein
Amino acids
172
Bond That Holds Amino Acids Together
Peptide bond
173
Protein Digestion in the Stomach
1. Denatured by HCl
| 2. Pepsin is activated to break proteins into single amino acids and smaller polypeptides
174
Protein Digestion in the Small Intestine
1. Proteases produced by the pancreas are secreted to digest polypeptides into smaller units
2. Cells in the wall of the small intestine complete the breakdown of dipeptides and tripeptides into single amino acids, which are absorbed in the bloodstream
175
Protein Digestion by the Pancreas
1. Produces proteases
176
End Result of Protein Digestion
Amino acids are absorbed into the mucosal cell by sodium-dependent amino acid transporters
177
Structure of a Triglyceride
Glycerol and three fatty acids
178
Lipase
Breaks down dietary fats into smaller molecules
| Produced by the pancreas
179
Micelles
Lipid molecules that arrange themselves in a spherical form in aqueous solution
180
Chylomicrons
Transport lipids absorbed from intestine to adipose, cardiac, and skeletal muscle tissue
181
Where are absorbed lipids taken into?
1. Small fatty acids enter cells and then blood by simple diffusion
2. Chylomicrons leave the intestinal cells by exocytosis into a lacteal
182
Where do chylomicrons go from a lacteal?
Lacteals to larger lymphatic vessels to thoracic duct to subclavian vein
183
Where are vitamins absorbed?
Small intestine
184
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
A, D, E, and K
185
Why do we rarely see deficiencies of vitamins B or K?
Synthesized in the GI tract
186
What is required for B12 absorption?
Intrinsic factor
187
Where are minerals/electrolytes absorbed?
Duodenum
188
Why does most absorption take place in the small intestine?
Small intestine is highly vascularized and is able to transport nutrients from the epithelium to the blood
189
Examples of Endocrine Glands
```
Pineal
Pituitary
Pancreas
Ovaries
Testes
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Hypothalamus
Adrenal
```
190
Examples of Exocrine Glands
```
Sweat
Salivary
Mammary
Ceruminous
Lacrimal
Sebaceous
Mucous
```
191
Hormone Receptor
Molecule that binds to a specific hormone, typically found on plasma membranes of cells
192
Receptors for Lipid-Soluble Hormones
Found within the cytoplasm
193
Up-Regulation
An increase of cellular receptors
194
Down-Regulation
A decrease in the number of cellular receptors
195
Lipid Soluble Hormones
```
Sex hormones (testosterone, progesterone, estrogen)
Steroids (glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids)
```
196
Water Soluble Hormones
Adrenaline
Noradrenaline
TSH
HGH
197
What are steroid hormones made from?
Cholesterol
198
Which hormone is metabolized by MAO?
Gonadal Hormones
| Monoamines
199
Why can't you give insulin, oxytocin, HGH in oral pills?
They will be destroyed by the gastric juice
200
Negative Feedback
The counteraction of an effect by its own influence
Too much glucose triggers the pancreas to produce insulin
201
Positive Feedback
The enhancement of an effect by its own influence on the process that gives rise to it
When contractions start, oxytocin is released and stimulates more oxytocin and more contractions
202
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone
Source: Hypothalamus
Released from: Pituitary gland
Action: Binds to receptors and causes the pituitary to create LH and FSH
203
Follicle Stimulating Hormone
Source: Anterior Pituitary
Target: Ovaries/Testes
Action: Stimulates egg/sperm production
204
Luteinizing Hormone
Source: Anterior Pituitary
Target: Ovaries/Testes
Action: Ovulation, sex hormone release
205
Growth Hormone
Source: Anterior Pituitary
Target: Body cells, bones, and muscles
Action: Growth and development
206
Prolactin
Source: Anterior Pituitary
Target: Breasts
Action: Maintains milk secretions
207
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
Source: Anterior Pituitary
Target: Thyroid
Stimulus: Hypothalamus releasing factor, decreased blood levels of thyroid hormone
Action: Regulates thyroid hormones
208
Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone
Source: Anterior Pituitary
Target: Adrenal Cortex
Stimulus: Low blood level of glucocorticoids, stress
Action: Stimulates the cortex of the adrenal gland to secrete cortisol
209
Antidiuretic Hormone
Source: Posterior Pituitary
Target: Kidneys
Stimulus: Increased osmolarity of plasma
Action: Inserts aquaporins into the nephron to increase water absorption
210
Oxytocin
Source: Posterior Pituitary
Target: Uterus, breasts
Stimulus: Contractions
Action: Uterine contractions, milk secretion
211
T3 and T4
Source: Thyroid
Target: Most cells
Stimulus: TSH
Action: Increases metabolic rate and body heat
212
Parathyroid Hormone
Source: Anterior pituitary and parathyroid gland
Target: Melanocytes in the skin, osteoclasts
Stimulus: Hypocalcemia
Action: Bone reabsorption (bones), decreases calcium secretion (kidneys), promotes vitamin D activity (blood calcium)
213
Calcitonin
Source: Thyroid
Target: Adrenal cortex
Stimulus: Hypercalcemia
Action: Decreases osteoclasts and bone reabsorption
214
Epinephrine
Source: Adrenal medulla
Target: Heart, lungs, liver, body cells
Stimulus: Fight or flight response
Action: Smooth muscle relaxation in the airways or contraction of smooth muscle in arterioles; inhibits flow to the nephrons
215
Norepinephrine
Source: Adrenal medulla
Target: Heart, lungs, liver, body cells
Stimulus: Fight or flight response
Action: Increases blood pressure, heart rate, and glucose from energy stores; inhibits flow to the nephrons
216
Aldosterone
Source: Adrenal cortex
Target: Kidney
Stimulus: Low blood pressure
Action: Increases sodium reabsorption
217
Androgens
Source: Ovaries, testes, adrenal cortex
Target: Heart, testes
Stimulus: Puberty or menopause
Action: Stimulates the development and maintenance of male and female characteristics
218
Glucocorticoids
Source: Adrenal cortex
Target: Anterior pituitary
Stimulus: ACTH
Action: Inhibit inflammatory processes
219
Insulin
Source: Pancreatic B cell
Target: Liver cell membrane
Stimulus: Hyperglycemia
Effect: Accelerates glucose transport into cells
220
Glucagon
Source: Pancreatic A cell
Target: Liver cells
Stimulus: Hypoglycemia
Effect: Glycogenolysis
221
Diabetes Mellitus
The most common form of diabetes caused by a deficiency of the pancreatic hormone insulin, which results in a failure to metabolize sugars and starch
222
Diabetes Insipidus
Rare form of diabetes caused by a deficiency of the pituitary hormone vasopressin, which regulates kidney function
223
Type I Diabetes
Insulin-dependent, chronic condition in which the pancreas produces little or no insulin
224
Type II Diabetes
Long term metabolic disorder that is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin
225
Symptoms of Diabetes
```
Hyperglycemia
Glycosuria
Polyuria
Polydipsia
Ketouria
Weight loss
Lack of energy/fatigue
```
226
Different Forms of Hormones
Steroid hormones
Monoamines
Peptide Hormones
227
How are steroid hormones transported?
Transport proteins
228
How are monoamines and peptides transported?
Mixing with blood plasma
229
How do steroid hormones communicate with the cell?
Interact with receptors inside the cell that alter the transcriptional activity of different genes
230
How do monoamines and peptides communicate with the cell?
Bind to receptors on the plasma membrane and activate the target inside of the cell
231
What zone of the adrenal cortex are glucocorticoids produced?
Zona fasciculata and reticularis
232
What zone of the adrenal cortex are mineralcorticoids produced?
Zona glomerulosa
233
What does ACTH stimulate the release of?
Glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex
234
What converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I?
Renin in the kidneys
235
What gland is responsible for epinephrine?
Adrenal medulla
236
Where is the site of filtration?
Glomerular capillaries
237
If glomerular blood pressure is increased, how would glomerular filtration be affected if nothing else changes?
Glomerular filtration will increase
238
What does the myogenic mechanism detect?
Blood pressure
239
What does not elicit the release the of aldosterone?
ADH
| Does not have anything to do with sodium
240
Which buffer system uses HPO4 to buffer secreted acid in the kidney?
The Phosphate Buffer System
241
What is responsible for the detection of blood osmolarity?
Osmoreceptors located in the hypothalamus
242
Order of Fat Digestion
Fat globule ---> Glycerol and fatty acids ---> Micelle
243
Muscularis Externa
Primarily responsible for peristalsis
244
What hormone stimulates T3 and T4?
TSH
245
Stratified squamous tissue is found in the...
Mouth and anus
246
Glucosuria without hyperglycemia is...
Renal diabetes
247
Glucosuria with hyperglycemia is...
Diabetes I and II and gestational
248
What portion of the nephron loop is permeable to water?
Descending limb
249
Symporters in the ascending limb of the nephron loop set up what feature in the medulla?
Osmotic gradient
250
Total body represents what percentage of weight?
45%
