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Anatomy II > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

How does lymphatic system prevent excess accumulation of tissue fluid (edema)?

A

Absorbs plasma proteins and fluid (2-4 L/day) from tissues and returns it to the bloodstream

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2
Q

How does lymphatic system counteract tissue infections?

A

Delivers WBCs to the site of infection

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3
Q

How does lymphatic system prevent the spread of malignant cells?

A

Traps damaged or harmful cells and also can destroy them in lymph glands

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4
Q

How many lymph nodes do we have?

A

Between 501-700 lymph nodes

About 450

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5
Q

Lymph Fluid

  • What is it?
  • Where does it originate?
A

Clear, colorless fluid
Similar to plasma but much less protein
Originates as interstitial fluid

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6
Q

Circulation Pathways of Lymph

A
  1. Lymphatic capillaries
  2. Collecting vessels
  3. Lymphatic trunks
  4. Collecting ducts
    - -Right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct
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7
Q

Right Lymphatic Duct

A

Drains lymph from upper right limb and the right side of the head and thorax

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8
Q

Thoracic Duct

A

Receives lymph from the rest of the body

Arises as enlarged sac called the cisterna chyli

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9
Q

Where does lymph end up?

A

Goes from lymph nodes to right or left subclavian vein, where it mixes back with the blood

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10
Q

Lymph Capillaries

  • -Where are they found?
  • -What is their function?
A

Found throughout the body except in avascular tissue

Deliver lymph to the tissues

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11
Q

How do lymph capillaries collect fluid?

A

Collect fluid from the tissues

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12
Q

How do lymph capillaries differ from blood capillaries?

A

Blood capillaries carry blood from small arterioles to small venules
Lymphatic capillaries carry lymphatic fluid from tissue to lymphatic venules

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13
Q

Lymph Nodes

  • -What is their function?
  • -Where are they located?
  • -What do they contain?
A
  1. Produce lymphocytes
  2. Scattered throughout the body, but concentrated near mammary glands, axillae, and groin
  3. B cells and plasma cells
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14
Q

Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue

A

Diffuse system of small concentration of lymphoid tissue found in the GI tract, thyroid, breast, lung, salivary glands, eye, and skin

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15
Q

Tonsils and MALT Function

A

Aggregations of lymphocytes in the connective tissues of mucous membranes and various organs

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16
Q

Spleen

A

NOT a lymphatic organ

Filters blood and removes dead RBCs

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17
Q

Location of the Spleen

A

Between the stomach, diaphragm, and kidney
Upper left quadrant
Epigastric region

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18
Q

Cisterna Chyli

A

Sac formed from two lumbar trunks and intestinal trunk that collects a large amount of chyle

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19
Q

Thoracic Duct

A

On the left

Larger and stronger than right lymphatic duct

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20
Q

Right Lymphatic Duct

A

Receives drainage from right arm and right side of the thorax and head and empties into the right subclavian vein

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21
Q

Terminal End of the Thoracic Duct

A

Sometimes called the left lymphatic duct

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22
Q

Final Destination of Lymph Fluid

A

Circulatory system

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23
Q

Why is the lymphatic system a 1-way system?

A

Lymphatic system is a return system only; removes fluid from the body and carries it to lymphatic ducts and trunks and puts it back into circulation

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24
Q

Lymphedema

A

Condition of localized fluid retention and tissue swelling caused by a compromised lymphatic system

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25
Q

Lymphangitis

A

Inflammation of the walls of lymphatic vessels

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26
Q

Lymphadenitis

A

Inflammation of the lymph nodes

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27
Q

Specific Immune Defenses

A

Immunity is directed against a particular pathogen

Body reacts when re-exposed to the same pathogen

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28
Q

Nonspecific Immune Defense

A

Initial immune reaction against foreign antigens via nonspecific antibodies and immune cells

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29
Q

Acquired Immunity

A

Immunity that is not inherited

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30
Q

Innate Immunity

A

Nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play immediately or within hours of an antigen’s appearance in the body

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31
Q

Active Immunity

A

The body makes its own antibodies or T cells against a pathogen

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32
Q

Passive Immunity

A

Body acquires antibodies from another person or an animal that has developed immunity to the pathogen

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33
Q

Injection for Passive Immunity

A

Immune serum from another person or from animals that have antibodies against a certain pathogen

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34
Q

Injection for Active Immunity

A

Vaccine that contains dead or weakened pathogens to stimulate an immune response

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35
Q

First Line of Defense

A 
Skin
Mucus
Tears
Cilia
Stomach Acid
Urine Flow
"Friendly" Bacteria
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36
Q

Second Line of Defense

A 
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Macrophages
Interferons
Complement Proteinsf
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37
Q

Neutrophils

A

Phagocytize bacteria

Create a killing zone by degranulating and initiating a respiratory burst

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38
Q

Eosinophils

A

Phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes, allergens, and chemicals
Antiparasitic effects

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39
Q

Basophils

A

Secrete chemicals to attract other leukocytes
Histamine, leukotrienes, heparine
Also produced by mast cells

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40
Q

Macrophages

A

Large grouping of monocytes
Form outside of the circulatory system
Possess MHC
Secrete cytokines

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41
Q

Interferons

A

Produced by virally infected cells (lymphocytes and macrophages)
Diffuse to neighboring cells to induce synthesis of antiviral proteins

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42
Q

Complement Proteins

A

Inactive proteins in blood plasma

When activated enhance immune, allergic, and inflammatory reactions

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43
Q

Natural Active Immunity

A

Production of one’s own antibodies or T cells as a result of natural exposure to an antigen

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44
Q

Artificial Active Immunity

A

Production of one’s own antibodies or T cells as a result of vaccination

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45
Q

Antigen

A

Molecule or bit of foreign material

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46
Q

Which cells have MHC-I?

A

Found in the cell membrane of all cells except red blood cells

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47
Q

Which cells have MHC-II?

A

Found only in antigen-presenting cells (macrophages, B cells, thymus cells)

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48
Q

Normal function of MHC-I?

A

Contains bits of virus marking cell so T cells recognize

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49
Q

Normal function of MHC-II?

A

If antigen-presenting cells ingest foreign proteins, they will display as part of MHC-II

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50
Q

Antigen-Presenting Cell

A

Encounters an antigen and migrates to the nearest lymph node and displays it to the T cells

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51
Q

Costimulation

A

Signaling process that helps to ensure that the immune system does not launch an attack in the absence of an enemy

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52
Q

T-Cell Receptors

A

Found on the surface of T cells and is responsible for recognizing fragments of antigen as peptides bound to MHC

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53
Q

Helper T Cells

A

Necessary for most immune responses

Coordinate humoral and cellular immunity

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54
Q

What happens when a Helper T cell recognizes an Ag-MHC complex?

A

Secrete interleukins that exert three effects:

  1. Attract neutrophils and NK cells
  2. Attract macrophages and stimulate phagocytic activity
  3. Stimulate T and B cell mitosis and maturation
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55
Q

Interleukins

A

Any class of glycoproteins produced by leukocytes for regulating immune responses

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56
Q

Activation of Cytotoxic T Cells

A

Docks on diseased cell with MHC-I protein and delivers a lethal hit of chemicals that will destroy it

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57
Q

Memory Clones

A

Clones of the cell the helper T cell recognized to make sure it is introduced into the system

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58
Q

Antibody-Mediated Immunity is also called…

A

Humoral Immunity

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59
Q

Antibody-Mediated Immunity

A
  1. Helper T Cells
  2. Costimulation
  3. B-Cell receptors
  4. Plasma cells
  5. Memory B-cells
  6. Antibodies
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60
Q

Plasma Cells

A

Develop from B cells that have been activated by helper T cells
Synthesize and secrete antibodies

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61
Q

Memory B-Cells

A

Mount a very quick secondary/anamnestic response if exposed to the same antigen

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62
Q

Antibodies

A

Gamma globulin produced by plasma cells in response to an antigen
Counteract the antigen by means of complement fixation, neutralization of toxins, agglutination, or precipitation

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63
Q

How do T-Cells fight off a pathogen?

A

Produce perforin, granzymes, interferon, tumor necrosis factor, and other cytokines

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64
Q

How do B-Cells kill off a pathogen?

A

B-Cells make antigens clump together

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65
Q

Why do we give booster vaccinations?

A

Immune response “memory” weakens over time

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66
Q

Which cells are involved in cellular immunity?

A

Lymphocytes

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67
Q

Which cells are involved in humoral immunity?

A

Antibodies

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68
Q

Cellular Immunity

A

Lymphocytes directly attack and destroy foreign cells

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69
Q

Humoral Immunity

A

Antibodies tag pathogens for destruction

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70
Q

Five Classes of Antibodies

A 
IgA
IgD
IgE
IgG
IgM
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71
Q

IgA

A

Able to cross the placenta
Found in tears, saliva, mucus
Prevents pathogens from adhering to epithelia and penetrating underlying tissues

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72
Q

IgE

A

Involved in allergies

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73
Q

IgM

A

Produced earlier in an infection

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74
Q

What cells does HIV destroy?

A

Helper T cells

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75
Q

Passive Immunity

A

Short-term immunity that results from the introduction of antibodies from another person or animal
Found in vaccines or serum

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76
Q

Advantages of Passive Immunity

A

Benefits immunosuppressed patients

Protection is immediate

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77
Q

Disadvantages of Passive Immunity

A

No immunological memory is generated

Short-term protection

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78
Q

Which immunity provides an anamnestic response?

A

Active immunity

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79
Q

Which immunity has a lag time before an immune response is generated?

A

Active immunity

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80
Q

Which immunity is immediately effective?

A

Passive immunity

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81
Q

Which immunity provides only short-term, temporary protection?

A

Passive immunity

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82
Q

What kind of molecule are complement proteins?

A

Globulins

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83
Q

Where are complement proteins found?

A

Liver

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84
Q

General Action of Complement Proteins

A

Circulate in the blood in inactive form and are activated with the presence of pathogens

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85
Q

How do complement proteins kill cells?

A
  1. Inflammation
  2. Immune clearance
  3. Phagocytosis
  4. Cytolysis
86
Q

Thymus Location

A

Located between the sternum and the aortic arch in the superior mediastinum

87
Q

Function of Thymus

A

Produces thymopoietin, interleukins, and interferon to stimulate production of white blood cells

88
Q

Thymus with age?

A

Degenerates

89
Q

Antibody/Humoral Immunity

A
  1. Antigens bind to B cells
  2. Interleukins/helper T cells costimulate B cells
  3. B cells proliferate and produce plasma cells that contain antibodies against the antigen
  4. B cells produce memory cells
90
Q

Cell-Mediated Immunity

A
  1. Antigen-presenting cells display foreign antigens that bind to T cells
  2. Interleukins costimulate activation of T cells
  3. If MHC-I, cells proliferate and produce cytotoxic T cells that destroy the cell displaying the antigen
  4. If MHC-II, cells produce helper T cells that release interleukins that stimulate B cells to produce antibodies to bind to the antigens and nonspecific agents (NK and macrophages) to destroy the antigens
91
Q

Which immunity is effective against intracellular pathogens?

A

Cell-mediated

92
Q

Which immunity is effective against extracellular pathogens?

A

Humoral

93
Q

Which immunity is effective against transplanted cells?

A

Cell-mediated

94
Q

Which immunity is effective against tumor cells?

A

Cell-mediated

95
Q

Hypersensitivity

A

A set of undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system, including allergies and autoimmunity

96
Q

Type 1 (Acute) Hypersensitivity

A

Most common allergies

97
Q

Type 2 (Antibody-Dependent Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivity

A

Occurs when IgG or IgM attacks antigens bound to cell surface

98
Q

Type 3 (Immune Complex) Hypersensitivity

A

Occurs when IgG or IgM forms antigen-antibody complexes that precipitate beneath the endothelium of the blood vessels or in other tissues

99
Q

Type 4 (Delayed) Hypersensitivity

A

Cell-mediated reaction in which the signs appear about 12 to 72 hours after exposure

100
Q

Where are T Cells produced and what activates them?

A

Produced in the bone marrow

Activated by the thymus

101
Q

Upper Respiratory System

A

Respiratory organs in the head and neck

  1. Nose
  2. Pharynx
  3. Larynx
  4. Trachea
102
Q

Lower Respiratory System

A

Respiratory organs of the thorax

  1. Lungs
  2. Bronchial tree
103
Q

Pulmonary Respiration/Ventilation

A

Ventilation of the lungs/breathing

104
Q

Cellular Respiration

A

The use of oxygen in cellular metabolism

105
Q

Bones Forming the Nose

A

Premaxilla bone
Palatine bone
Vomer bone
Nasal bone

106
Q

Location of Nasal Cavities

A

Internal chamber of the nose divided into right and left halves (Nasal Fossae)

107
Q

Nasal Septum

A

Vertical plate dividing the nasal fossae

Formed by vomer and perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone

108
Q

Conchae/Turbinates

–Functions

A

Three folds of tissue that project from the lateral walls toward the septum
Support the olfactory mucous membranes and increase the surface area

109
Q

Meatuses

A

Nasal passages of the nasal cavity

110
Q

Mucosa

A

Facilitates the detection of and response to odor molecules

111
Q

How does your nose prevent bacteria from entering your lungs?

A

Mucus membranes trap bacteria

Nasal hairs remove suspended microorganisms from the air

112
Q

Larynx Location

A

Between pharynx and trachea

113
Q

Thyroid Cartilage

A

Uppermost cartilage within the larynx

114
Q

Glottis

A

Opening between the vocal cords

115
Q

Cricoid Cartilage

A

Located near the middle and center of the neck, slightly below the thyroid cartilage

116
Q

Trachea and Esophagus

A

Trachea is posterior, esophagus is anterior

117
Q

When you swallow, what prevents food from moving from the oropharynx to the nasopharynx?

A

Valve created by the soft palate

118
Q

What is contained by the mediastinum?

A

Heart, aorta, thymus, chest portion of trachea, esophagus, lymph nodes

119
Q

Parietal Pleura

A

Outer membrane that attaches to and lines the inner surface of the thoracic cavity

120
Q

Visceral Pleura

A

Covers the surface of each lung

121
Q

Pleural Fluid

A

Between parietal and visceral pleura

122
Q

Epithelium of Trachea

A

Pseudostratified squamous epithelium

123
Q

Function of Cartilage Rings

A

Support the trachea while allowing it to move and flex during breathing

124
Q

Hilus of Lung

A

Inner side of each lung

125
Q

Apex of Lung

A

Rounded upper part of the human lung

126
Q

Base of Lung

A

Broad, concave, and rests upon the surface of the diaphragm

127
Q

Right Lobes

A

3

128
Q

Left Lobes

A

2

129
Q

What kind of muscle is found in bronchiolar wall?

A

Smooth muscle

130
Q

Alveolar-Capillary Membrane (Respiratory Membrane) Function

A

Exists to prevent air bubbles from forming in the blood and from blood entering the alveoli

131
Q

Thickness of Alveolar-Capillary Membrane

A

Varies from 0.4 to 2 micrometers

132
Q

Layers of Alveolar-Capillary Membrane that CO2 and O2 Molecules Need to Cross

A
  1. Epithelial alveolar
  2. Shared basement membrane
  3. Endothelial alveolar
133
Q

Function of Elastic Fibers

A

Allow alveoli to stretch as they are filled with air during inhalation

134
Q

Function of Macrophages in Alveoli

A

Clear inhaled particles from the alveolar regions of the lung

135
Q

Purpose of Surfactant

A

Reduces the surface tension of fluid in the lungs and helps make alveoli in the lungs more stable
Secreted by alveoli

136
Q

Normal differences in pressure between pleural cavity and atmosphere

A

Pleural cavity pressure is less than atmospheric pressure

137
Q

Negative Pressure Breathing

A

The rib cage expands and the diaphragm contracts, expanding the chest cavity, causing pressure in the chest cavity to decrease and the lungs to expand and fill the space

138
Q

What muscle produces an intra-pleural pressure change?

A

Diaphragm

  1. Diaphragm moves downward
  2. Increases vertical dimension of thoracic cavity
  3. Lowers air pressure in lungs
  4. Air moves into the lungs
139
Q

Tidal Volume

A

TV

Lung volume representing the normal volume of air displaced between normal inhalation and exhalation

140
Q

Inspiratory Reserve Volume

A

IRV

Maximal amount of air that can be drawn into the lungs by determined effort after normal inspiration

141
Q

Expiratory Reserve Volume

A

ERV

The additional amount of air that can be expired from the lungs by determined effort after normal expiration

142
Q

Reserve Volume

A

RV

The volume of air still remaining in the lungs after the most forcible expiration possible

143
Q

Vital Capacity

A

VC

The greatest volume of air that can be expelled from the lungs after taking the deepest possible breath

144
Q

Total Lung Capacity

A

The volume of air contained in the lungs at the end of maximal expiration

145
Q

How are pulmonary volumes measured?

A

Spirometry

146
Q

Dalton’s Law

A

In a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of partial pressures of the individual gases

147
Q

Percentage of Nitrogen in the Air

A

78%

148
Q

Percentage of Oxygen in the Air

A

21%

149
Q

Percentage of Carbon Dioxide in the Air

A

0.04%

150
Q

Partial Pressure

A

The pressure that would be exerted by one of the gases in a mixture if it occupied the same value on its own

151
Q

Partial Pressure of Oxygen

A

160mmHg
Reflects the amount of oxygen gas dissolved in the blood
Measures the effectiveness of the lungs in pulling oxygen into the bloodstream from the atmosphere

152
Q

Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide

A

35-45mmHg

153
Q

Why can we breathe 79% nitrogen?

A

Nitrogen is inert and doesn’t react with anything; does not get absorbed by the body

154
Q

Concentration Gradients of CO2 and O2 Across the Respiratory Membrane of the Alveolus

A

The change in partial pressure from the alveoli (high concentration) to the capillaries (low concentration) drives the oxygen into the tissue and the carbon dioxide in the blood (high concentration) from the tissues (low concentration) where it is returned to the lungs and exhaled

155
Q

Concentration Gradients of CO2 and O2 Across Capillary Membranes Into and Out of Interstitial Fluid and Cytoplasm

A

O2 will diffuse from high O2 blood in capillaries to low O2 body cells
CO2 goes from high CO2 to low CO2 capillaries to be carried out of the body

156
Q

Respiratory Membrane Thickness

A

0.5-1 micrometer thick

157
Q

Respiratory Membrane Surface Area

A

As large as a tennis court

158
Q

Arterial PO2

A

> 79torr

159
Q

Arterial PCO2

A

23-39 mmol/L

160
Q

Venous PO2

A

30-40torr

161
Q

Venous PCO2

A

23-30 mmol/L

162
Q

How is CO2 carried?

A
  1. Dissolved in solution
  2. Buffered with water as carbonic acid
  3. Bound to proteins such as hemoglobin
163
Q

Systemic Gas Exchange: O2 Loading or Unloading?

A

Oxygen Loading

164
Q

Systemic Gas Exchange: CO2 Loading or Unloading?

A

Carbon Dioxide Unloading

165
Q

How does blood transport oxygen?

A

Hemoglobin

166
Q

What is normal hemoglobin saturation?

A

97%

167
Q

How does pH affect loading/unloading?

A

Decreased pH: caused by increased CO2 and enhances unloading of O2
Increased pH: caused by decreased CO2 and enhances loading of O2

168
Q

How does temperature affect loading/unloading?

A

Increased Temperature: enhances unloading of O2 in the tissues and decreases loading of O2 in the lungs
Decreased Temperature: enhances loading of O2 in the lungs

169
Q

CO2 source of production in the body?

A

Mitochondria via aerobic respiration

Glycolysis

170
Q

Bicarbonate Buffer System

A

Acid-base homeostatic mechanism involving the balance of carbonic acid, bicarbonate ion, and carbon dioxide to maintain pH

171
Q

Bicarbonate Buffer System Equation

A

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3 + H+

172
Q

What does carbonic anhydrase do?

A

Aids in conversion of CO2 to carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions

173
Q

Normal Body pH

A

7.4

174
Q

How do higher plasma levels decrease body pH?

A

Cellular buffering elevates plasma bicarbonate, which causes body to be acidic

175
Q

Cause of Alkalosis

A

Loss of acid from the blood or low level of CO2 in the blood

176
Q

Compensation Mechanism of Alkalosis

A

Breathing into a paper bag

177
Q

Hypercapnia

A

Excessive CO2 in the bloodstream caused by inadequate respiration

178
Q

Hypocapnia

A

State of reduced CO2 in the blood caused by rapid deep breathing or hyperventilation

179
Q

CNS Centers of Respiration

A

Medulla oblongata
Pons
Apneustic center
Pneumotaxic center

180
Q

Central Chemoreceptors

A

Detect changes in pH of spinal fluid

181
Q

Peripheral Chemoreceptors

A

Include aortic body

Detect changes in blood O2 and CO2

182
Q

Hypoxia Etiologies

A
  1. Asthma
  2. COPD
  3. Emphysema
  4. Pneumonia
  5. Sleep apnea
  6. Anemia
183
Q

Carbaminohemoglobin

A

Compound of hemoglobin and carbon dioxide and is one of the forms in which carbon dioxide exists in the blood

184
Q

Oxyhemoglobin

A

Bright red substance formed by the combination of hemoglobin with oxygen

185
Q

Pneumothorax

A

Collapsed lung

186
Q

Innate Pulmonary Defense Mechanisms

A

Nose: nasal mucosa
Trachea: cilia
Alveoli: macrophages

187
Q

Alveolar Gas Exchange (Lungs)

A

CO2 + H20

188
Q

Systemic Gas Exchange (Tissues)

A

CO2 + H2O —-> H2CO3 —-> HCO3 + H+

189
Q

Boyle’s Law

A

The pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume (assuming constant pressure)

190
Q

Charles’ Law

A

The volume of a given quantity of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (assuming constant pressure)

191
Q

Henry’s Law

A

At the air-water interface, the amount of gas that dissolves in water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in the air (assuming constant temperature)

192
Q

Functions of the Kidney

A 
Eliminates nitrogenous waste
Regulates blood ions
Regulates blood pH, osmolarity, glucose, blood volume
Regulates blood pressure
Releases EPO and calcitrol
Excretes wastes and foreign substances
193
Q

Glomerulus

A

Site of filtration of blood

194
Q

Glomerular Capsule/Bowman’s Capsule

A

Performs the first step in the filtration of blood to form urine

195
Q

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

A

Lies between Bowman’s capsule and the loop of Henle and reabsorbs sugar, sodium, and chloride ions

196
Q

Descending Loop of Henle

A

Constitutes the first part of the loop of Henle

197
Q

Ascending Loop of Henle

A

Second part of the loop of Henle

198
Q

Distal Convoluted Tubule

A

Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct system

199
Q

Collecting Duct

A

Participates in electrolyte and fluid balance through excretion and reabsorption and is regulated by aldosterone

200
Q

Blood Supply to the Nephron

A

Artery–Capillary–Artery–Capillary–Vein Blood Flow

201
Q

Three Basic Processes Performed by the Nephron

A
  1. Glomerular filtration
  2. Tubular secretion
  3. Tubular reabsorption
202
Q

Glomerular Filtration

A

Process by which the kidneys filter the blood, removing excess waste and fluids

203
Q

Tubular Secretion

A

The transfer of materials from peritubular capillaries to the renal tubular lumen

204
Q

Tubular Reabsorption

A

The process by which solutes and water are removed from the tubular fluid and transported into the blood

205
Q

Difference Between Glomerular Filtrate and Blood

A

GF is solute-rich fluid without blood cells or plasma proteins
Blood has plasma and blood cells

206
Q

Layers of the Glomerular Filer

A
  1. Fenestrated endothelium
  2. Basement Membrane
  3. Filtration Slits (pedicels)
207
Q

Podocytes

A

Cells in the Bowman’s capsule in the kidneys that wrap around the capillaries of the glomerulus

208
Q

GFR

A

Estimates how much blood passes through the glomeruli each minute
105-125mL/min
180 L/day

209
Q

Where is the majority of GF reabsorbed?

A

Proximal convoluted tubule

210
Q

Renal Threshold

A

Concentration of a substance dissolved in the blood above which the kidneys begin to remove it into urine

211
Q

What substances are secreted into GF?

A 
Potassium
Hydrogen
Ammonium
Creatinine
Urea
212
Q

Glucosuria

A

Excess glucose in the urine

Anatomy II (16 decks)

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