Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
How does lymphatic system prevent excess accumulation of tissue fluid (edema)?
A
Absorbs plasma proteins and fluid (2-4 L/day) from tissues and returns it to the bloodstream
2
Q
How does lymphatic system counteract tissue infections?
A
Delivers WBCs to the site of infection
3
Q
How does lymphatic system prevent the spread of malignant cells?
A
Traps damaged or harmful cells and also can destroy them in lymph glands
4
Q
How many lymph nodes do we have?
A
Between 501-700 lymph nodes
About 450
5
Q
Lymph Fluid
- What is it?
- Where does it originate?
A
Clear, colorless fluid
Similar to plasma but much less protein
Originates as interstitial fluid
6
Q
Circulation Pathways of Lymph
A
- Lymphatic capillaries
- Collecting vessels
- Lymphatic trunks
- Collecting ducts
- -Right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct
7
Q
Right Lymphatic Duct
A
Drains lymph from upper right limb and the right side of the head and thorax
8
Q
Thoracic Duct
A
Receives lymph from the rest of the body
Arises as enlarged sac called the cisterna chyli
9
Q
Where does lymph end up?
A
Goes from lymph nodes to right or left subclavian vein, where it mixes back with the blood
10
Q
Lymph Capillaries
- -Where are they found?
- -What is their function?
A
Found throughout the body except in avascular tissue
Deliver lymph to the tissues
11
Q
How do lymph capillaries collect fluid?
A
Collect fluid from the tissues
12
Q
How do lymph capillaries differ from blood capillaries?
A
Blood capillaries carry blood from small arterioles to small venules
Lymphatic capillaries carry lymphatic fluid from tissue to lymphatic venules
13
Q
Lymph Nodes
- -What is their function?
- -Where are they located?
- -What do they contain?
A
- Produce lymphocytes
- Scattered throughout the body, but concentrated near mammary glands, axillae, and groin
- B cells and plasma cells
14
Q
Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue
A
Diffuse system of small concentration of lymphoid tissue found in the GI tract, thyroid, breast, lung, salivary glands, eye, and skin
15
Q
Tonsils and MALT Function
A
Aggregations of lymphocytes in the connective tissues of mucous membranes and various organs
16
Q
Spleen
A
NOT a lymphatic organ
Filters blood and removes dead RBCs
17
Q
Location of the Spleen
A
Between the stomach, diaphragm, and kidney
Upper left quadrant
Epigastric region
18
Q
Cisterna Chyli
A
Sac formed from two lumbar trunks and intestinal trunk that collects a large amount of chyle
19
Q
Thoracic Duct
A
On the left
Larger and stronger than right lymphatic duct
20
Q
Right Lymphatic Duct
A
Receives drainage from right arm and right side of the thorax and head and empties into the right subclavian vein
21
Q
Terminal End of the Thoracic Duct
A
Sometimes called the left lymphatic duct
22
Q
Final Destination of Lymph Fluid
A
Circulatory system
23
Q
Why is the lymphatic system a 1-way system?
A
Lymphatic system is a return system only; removes fluid from the body and carries it to lymphatic ducts and trunks and puts it back into circulation
24
Q
Lymphedema
A
Condition of localized fluid retention and tissue swelling caused by a compromised lymphatic system
25
Lymphangitis
Inflammation of the walls of lymphatic vessels
26
Lymphadenitis
Inflammation of the lymph nodes
27
Specific Immune Defenses
Immunity is directed against a particular pathogen
| Body reacts when re-exposed to the same pathogen
28
Nonspecific Immune Defense
Initial immune reaction against foreign antigens via nonspecific antibodies and immune cells
29
Acquired Immunity
Immunity that is not inherited
30
Innate Immunity
Nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play immediately or within hours of an antigen's appearance in the body
31
Active Immunity
The body makes its own antibodies or T cells against a pathogen
32
Passive Immunity
Body acquires antibodies from another person or an animal that has developed immunity to the pathogen
33
Injection for Passive Immunity
Immune serum from another person or from animals that have antibodies against a certain pathogen
34
Injection for Active Immunity
Vaccine that contains dead or weakened pathogens to stimulate an immune response
35
First Line of Defense
```
Skin
Mucus
Tears
Cilia
Stomach Acid
Urine Flow
"Friendly" Bacteria
```
36
Second Line of Defense
```
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Macrophages
Interferons
Complement Proteinsf
```
37
Neutrophils
Phagocytize bacteria
| Create a killing zone by degranulating and initiating a respiratory burst
38
Eosinophils
Phagocytize antigen-antibody complexes, allergens, and chemicals
Antiparasitic effects
39
Basophils
Secrete chemicals to attract other leukocytes
Histamine, leukotrienes, heparine
Also produced by mast cells
40
Macrophages
Large grouping of monocytes
Form outside of the circulatory system
Possess MHC
Secrete cytokines
41
Interferons
Produced by virally infected cells (lymphocytes and macrophages)
Diffuse to neighboring cells to induce synthesis of antiviral proteins
42
Complement Proteins
Inactive proteins in blood plasma
| When activated enhance immune, allergic, and inflammatory reactions
43
Natural Active Immunity
Production of one's own antibodies or T cells as a result of natural exposure to an antigen
44
Artificial Active Immunity
Production of one's own antibodies or T cells as a result of vaccination
45
Antigen
Molecule or bit of foreign material
46
Which cells have MHC-I?
Found in the cell membrane of all cells except red blood cells
47
Which cells have MHC-II?
Found only in antigen-presenting cells (macrophages, B cells, thymus cells)
48
Normal function of MHC-I?
Contains bits of virus marking cell so T cells recognize
49
Normal function of MHC-II?
If antigen-presenting cells ingest foreign proteins, they will display as part of MHC-II
50
Antigen-Presenting Cell
Encounters an antigen and migrates to the nearest lymph node and displays it to the T cells
51
Costimulation
Signaling process that helps to ensure that the immune system does not launch an attack in the absence of an enemy
52
T-Cell Receptors
Found on the surface of T cells and is responsible for recognizing fragments of antigen as peptides bound to MHC
53
Helper T Cells
Necessary for most immune responses
| Coordinate humoral and cellular immunity
54
What happens when a Helper T cell recognizes an Ag-MHC complex?
Secrete interleukins that exert three effects:
1. Attract neutrophils and NK cells
2. Attract macrophages and stimulate phagocytic activity
3. Stimulate T and B cell mitosis and maturation
55
Interleukins
Any class of glycoproteins produced by leukocytes for regulating immune responses
56
Activation of Cytotoxic T Cells
Docks on diseased cell with MHC-I protein and delivers a lethal hit of chemicals that will destroy it
57
Memory Clones
Clones of the cell the helper T cell recognized to make sure it is introduced into the system
58
Antibody-Mediated Immunity is also called...
Humoral Immunity
59
Antibody-Mediated Immunity
1. Helper T Cells
2. Costimulation
3. B-Cell receptors
4. Plasma cells
5. Memory B-cells
6. Antibodies
60
Plasma Cells
Develop from B cells that have been activated by helper T cells
Synthesize and secrete antibodies
61
Memory B-Cells
Mount a very quick secondary/anamnestic response if exposed to the same antigen
62
Antibodies
Gamma globulin produced by plasma cells in response to an antigen
Counteract the antigen by means of complement fixation, neutralization of toxins, agglutination, or precipitation
63
How do T-Cells fight off a pathogen?
Produce perforin, granzymes, interferon, tumor necrosis factor, and other cytokines
64
How do B-Cells kill off a pathogen?
B-Cells make antigens clump together
65
Why do we give booster vaccinations?
Immune response "memory" weakens over time
66
Which cells are involved in cellular immunity?
Lymphocytes
67
Which cells are involved in humoral immunity?
Antibodies
68
Cellular Immunity
Lymphocytes directly attack and destroy foreign cells
69
Humoral Immunity
Antibodies tag pathogens for destruction
70
Five Classes of Antibodies
```
IgA
IgD
IgE
IgG
IgM
```
71
IgA
Able to cross the placenta
Found in tears, saliva, mucus
Prevents pathogens from adhering to epithelia and penetrating underlying tissues
72
IgE
Involved in allergies
73
IgM
Produced earlier in an infection
74
What cells does HIV destroy?
Helper T cells
75
Passive Immunity
Short-term immunity that results from the introduction of antibodies from another person or animal
Found in vaccines or serum
76
Advantages of Passive Immunity
Benefits immunosuppressed patients
| Protection is immediate
77
Disadvantages of Passive Immunity
No immunological memory is generated
| Short-term protection
78
Which immunity provides an anamnestic response?
Active immunity
79
Which immunity has a lag time before an immune response is generated?
Active immunity
80
Which immunity is immediately effective?
Passive immunity
81
Which immunity provides only short-term, temporary protection?
Passive immunity
82
What kind of molecule are complement proteins?
Globulins
83
Where are complement proteins found?
Liver
84
General Action of Complement Proteins
Circulate in the blood in inactive form and are activated with the presence of pathogens
85
How do complement proteins kill cells?
1. Inflammation
2. Immune clearance
3. Phagocytosis
4. Cytolysis
86
Thymus Location
Located between the sternum and the aortic arch in the superior mediastinum
87
Function of Thymus
Produces thymopoietin, interleukins, and interferon to stimulate production of white blood cells
88
Thymus with age?
Degenerates
89
Antibody/Humoral Immunity
1. Antigens bind to B cells
2. Interleukins/helper T cells costimulate B cells
3. B cells proliferate and produce plasma cells that contain antibodies against the antigen
4. B cells produce memory cells
90
Cell-Mediated Immunity
1. Antigen-presenting cells display foreign antigens that bind to T cells
2. Interleukins costimulate activation of T cells
3. If MHC-I, cells proliferate and produce cytotoxic T cells that destroy the cell displaying the antigen
4. If MHC-II, cells produce helper T cells that release interleukins that stimulate B cells to produce antibodies to bind to the antigens and nonspecific agents (NK and macrophages) to destroy the antigens
91
Which immunity is effective against intracellular pathogens?
Cell-mediated
92
Which immunity is effective against extracellular pathogens?
Humoral
93
Which immunity is effective against transplanted cells?
Cell-mediated
94
Which immunity is effective against tumor cells?
Cell-mediated
95
Hypersensitivity
A set of undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system, including allergies and autoimmunity
96
Type 1 (Acute) Hypersensitivity
Most common allergies
97
Type 2 (Antibody-Dependent Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivity
Occurs when IgG or IgM attacks antigens bound to cell surface
98
Type 3 (Immune Complex) Hypersensitivity
Occurs when IgG or IgM forms antigen-antibody complexes that precipitate beneath the endothelium of the blood vessels or in other tissues
99
Type 4 (Delayed) Hypersensitivity
Cell-mediated reaction in which the signs appear about 12 to 72 hours after exposure
100
Where are T Cells produced and what activates them?
Produced in the bone marrow
| Activated by the thymus
101
Upper Respiratory System
Respiratory organs in the head and neck
1. Nose
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx
4. Trachea
102
Lower Respiratory System
Respiratory organs of the thorax
1. Lungs
2. Bronchial tree
103
Pulmonary Respiration/Ventilation
Ventilation of the lungs/breathing
104
Cellular Respiration
The use of oxygen in cellular metabolism
105
Bones Forming the Nose
Premaxilla bone
Palatine bone
Vomer bone
Nasal bone
106
Location of Nasal Cavities
Internal chamber of the nose divided into right and left halves (Nasal Fossae)
107
Nasal Septum
Vertical plate dividing the nasal fossae
| Formed by vomer and perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone
108
Conchae/Turbinates
| --Functions
Three folds of tissue that project from the lateral walls toward the septum
Support the olfactory mucous membranes and increase the surface area
109
Meatuses
Nasal passages of the nasal cavity
110
Mucosa
Facilitates the detection of and response to odor molecules
111
How does your nose prevent bacteria from entering your lungs?
Mucus membranes trap bacteria
| Nasal hairs remove suspended microorganisms from the air
112
Larynx Location
Between pharynx and trachea
113
Thyroid Cartilage
Uppermost cartilage within the larynx
114
Glottis
Opening between the vocal cords
115
Cricoid Cartilage
Located near the middle and center of the neck, slightly below the thyroid cartilage
116
Trachea and Esophagus
Trachea is posterior, esophagus is anterior
117
When you swallow, what prevents food from moving from the oropharynx to the nasopharynx?
Valve created by the soft palate
118
What is contained by the mediastinum?
Heart, aorta, thymus, chest portion of trachea, esophagus, lymph nodes
119
Parietal Pleura
Outer membrane that attaches to and lines the inner surface of the thoracic cavity
120
Visceral Pleura
Covers the surface of each lung
121
Pleural Fluid
Between parietal and visceral pleura
122
Epithelium of Trachea
Pseudostratified squamous epithelium
123
Function of Cartilage Rings
Support the trachea while allowing it to move and flex during breathing
124
Hilus of Lung
Inner side of each lung
125
Apex of Lung
Rounded upper part of the human lung
126
Base of Lung
Broad, concave, and rests upon the surface of the diaphragm
127
Right Lobes
3
128
Left Lobes
2
129
What kind of muscle is found in bronchiolar wall?
Smooth muscle
130
Alveolar-Capillary Membrane (Respiratory Membrane) Function
Exists to prevent air bubbles from forming in the blood and from blood entering the alveoli
131
Thickness of Alveolar-Capillary Membrane
Varies from 0.4 to 2 micrometers
132
Layers of Alveolar-Capillary Membrane that CO2 and O2 Molecules Need to Cross
1. Epithelial alveolar
2. Shared basement membrane
3. Endothelial alveolar
133
Function of Elastic Fibers
Allow alveoli to stretch as they are filled with air during inhalation
134
Function of Macrophages in Alveoli
Clear inhaled particles from the alveolar regions of the lung
135
Purpose of Surfactant
Reduces the surface tension of fluid in the lungs and helps make alveoli in the lungs more stable
Secreted by alveoli
136
Normal differences in pressure between pleural cavity and atmosphere
Pleural cavity pressure is less than atmospheric pressure
137
Negative Pressure Breathing
The rib cage expands and the diaphragm contracts, expanding the chest cavity, causing pressure in the chest cavity to decrease and the lungs to expand and fill the space
138
What muscle produces an intra-pleural pressure change?
Diaphragm
1. Diaphragm moves downward
2. Increases vertical dimension of thoracic cavity
3. Lowers air pressure in lungs
4. Air moves into the lungs
139
Tidal Volume
TV
| Lung volume representing the normal volume of air displaced between normal inhalation and exhalation
140
Inspiratory Reserve Volume
IRV
| Maximal amount of air that can be drawn into the lungs by determined effort after normal inspiration
141
Expiratory Reserve Volume
ERV
| The additional amount of air that can be expired from the lungs by determined effort after normal expiration
142
Reserve Volume
RV
| The volume of air still remaining in the lungs after the most forcible expiration possible
143
Vital Capacity
VC
| The greatest volume of air that can be expelled from the lungs after taking the deepest possible breath
144
Total Lung Capacity
The volume of air contained in the lungs at the end of maximal expiration
145
How are pulmonary volumes measured?
Spirometry
146
Dalton's Law
In a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of partial pressures of the individual gases
147
Percentage of Nitrogen in the Air
78%
148
Percentage of Oxygen in the Air
21%
149
Percentage of Carbon Dioxide in the Air
0.04%
150
Partial Pressure
The pressure that would be exerted by one of the gases in a mixture if it occupied the same value on its own
151
Partial Pressure of Oxygen
160mmHg
Reflects the amount of oxygen gas dissolved in the blood
Measures the effectiveness of the lungs in pulling oxygen into the bloodstream from the atmosphere
152
Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide
35-45mmHg
153
Why can we breathe 79% nitrogen?
Nitrogen is inert and doesn't react with anything; does not get absorbed by the body
154
Concentration Gradients of CO2 and O2 Across the Respiratory Membrane of the Alveolus
The change in partial pressure from the alveoli (high concentration) to the capillaries (low concentration) drives the oxygen into the tissue and the carbon dioxide in the blood (high concentration) from the tissues (low concentration) where it is returned to the lungs and exhaled
155
Concentration Gradients of CO2 and O2 Across Capillary Membranes Into and Out of Interstitial Fluid and Cytoplasm
O2 will diffuse from high O2 blood in capillaries to low O2 body cells
CO2 goes from high CO2 to low CO2 capillaries to be carried out of the body
156
Respiratory Membrane Thickness
0.5-1 micrometer thick
157
Respiratory Membrane Surface Area
As large as a tennis court
158
Arterial PO2
>79torr
159
Arterial PCO2
23-39 mmol/L
160
Venous PO2
30-40torr
161
Venous PCO2
23-30 mmol/L
162
How is CO2 carried?
1. Dissolved in solution
2. Buffered with water as carbonic acid
3. Bound to proteins such as hemoglobin
163
Systemic Gas Exchange: O2 Loading or Unloading?
Oxygen Loading
164
Systemic Gas Exchange: CO2 Loading or Unloading?
Carbon Dioxide Unloading
165
How does blood transport oxygen?
Hemoglobin
166
What is normal hemoglobin saturation?
97%
167
How does pH affect loading/unloading?
Decreased pH: caused by increased CO2 and enhances unloading of O2
Increased pH: caused by decreased CO2 and enhances loading of O2
168
How does temperature affect loading/unloading?
Increased Temperature: enhances unloading of O2 in the tissues and decreases loading of O2 in the lungs
Decreased Temperature: enhances loading of O2 in the lungs
169
CO2 source of production in the body?
Mitochondria via aerobic respiration
| Glycolysis
170
Bicarbonate Buffer System
Acid-base homeostatic mechanism involving the balance of carbonic acid, bicarbonate ion, and carbon dioxide to maintain pH
171
Bicarbonate Buffer System Equation
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3 + H+
172
What does carbonic anhydrase do?
Aids in conversion of CO2 to carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions
173
Normal Body pH
7.4
174
How do higher plasma levels decrease body pH?
Cellular buffering elevates plasma bicarbonate, which causes body to be acidic
175
Cause of Alkalosis
Loss of acid from the blood or low level of CO2 in the blood
176
Compensation Mechanism of Alkalosis
Breathing into a paper bag
177
Hypercapnia
Excessive CO2 in the bloodstream caused by inadequate respiration
178
Hypocapnia
State of reduced CO2 in the blood caused by rapid deep breathing or hyperventilation
179
CNS Centers of Respiration
Medulla oblongata
Pons
Apneustic center
Pneumotaxic center
180
Central Chemoreceptors
Detect changes in pH of spinal fluid
181
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
Include aortic body
| Detect changes in blood O2 and CO2
182
Hypoxia Etiologies
1. Asthma
2. COPD
3. Emphysema
4. Pneumonia
5. Sleep apnea
6. Anemia
183
Carbaminohemoglobin
Compound of hemoglobin and carbon dioxide and is one of the forms in which carbon dioxide exists in the blood
184
Oxyhemoglobin
Bright red substance formed by the combination of hemoglobin with oxygen
185
Pneumothorax
Collapsed lung
186
Innate Pulmonary Defense Mechanisms
Nose: nasal mucosa
Trachea: cilia
Alveoli: macrophages
187
Alveolar Gas Exchange (Lungs)
CO2 + H20
188
Systemic Gas Exchange (Tissues)
CO2 + H2O ----> H2CO3 ----> HCO3 + H+
189
Boyle's Law
The pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume (assuming constant pressure)
190
Charles' Law
The volume of a given quantity of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (assuming constant pressure)
191
Henry's Law
At the air-water interface, the amount of gas that dissolves in water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in the air (assuming constant temperature)
192
Functions of the Kidney
```
Eliminates nitrogenous waste
Regulates blood ions
Regulates blood pH, osmolarity, glucose, blood volume
Regulates blood pressure
Releases EPO and calcitrol
Excretes wastes and foreign substances
```
193
Glomerulus
Site of filtration of blood
194
Glomerular Capsule/Bowman's Capsule
Performs the first step in the filtration of blood to form urine
195
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
Lies between Bowman's capsule and the loop of Henle and reabsorbs sugar, sodium, and chloride ions
196
Descending Loop of Henle
Constitutes the first part of the loop of Henle
197
Ascending Loop of Henle
Second part of the loop of Henle
198
Distal Convoluted Tubule
Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct system
199
Collecting Duct
Participates in electrolyte and fluid balance through excretion and reabsorption and is regulated by aldosterone
200
Blood Supply to the Nephron
Artery--Capillary--Artery--Capillary--Vein Blood Flow
201
Three Basic Processes Performed by the Nephron
1. Glomerular filtration
2. Tubular secretion
3. Tubular reabsorption
202
Glomerular Filtration
Process by which the kidneys filter the blood, removing excess waste and fluids
203
Tubular Secretion
The transfer of materials from peritubular capillaries to the renal tubular lumen
204
Tubular Reabsorption
The process by which solutes and water are removed from the tubular fluid and transported into the blood
205
Difference Between Glomerular Filtrate and Blood
GF is solute-rich fluid without blood cells or plasma proteins
Blood has plasma and blood cells
206
Layers of the Glomerular Filer
1. Fenestrated endothelium
2. Basement Membrane
3. Filtration Slits (pedicels)
207
Podocytes
Cells in the Bowman's capsule in the kidneys that wrap around the capillaries of the glomerulus
208
GFR
Estimates how much blood passes through the glomeruli each minute
105-125mL/min
180 L/day
209
Where is the majority of GF reabsorbed?
Proximal convoluted tubule
210
Renal Threshold
Concentration of a substance dissolved in the blood above which the kidneys begin to remove it into urine
211
What substances are secreted into GF?
```
Potassium
Hydrogen
Ammonium
Creatinine
Urea
```
212
Glucosuria
Excess glucose in the urine
