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DEN 7101F - Human Structure and Function > Exam 2 10/18 Britton > Flashcards

Exam 2 10/18 Britton Flashcards

1
Q

Homeostasis definition

A

ability to maintain a constant internal environment within a living organism in response to changes
(temp, nutrition, stress, disease)

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2
Q

Maintaining homeostasis requires:

A

communication between neighboring cells/between cells and tissues in distant parts of the body

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3
Q

The body coordinates its functions by what types of cellular communication?

A
  • neural
  • endocrine
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4
Q

Neural signaling

A

chemical signaling via release of neurotransmitters between neurons and target cells

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5
Q

Endocrine signaling

A

chemical signaling through release of hormones into the bloodstream to elicit a response in target cells

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6
Q

Types of cell signaling molecules

A
  • neurotransmitters
  • hormones
  • local mediators
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7
Q

Chemicals released from nerve terminals are called:

A

Neurotransmitters

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8
Q

Neurotransmitters combine with specific ____ on target cells

A

receptors

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9
Q

Hormones are secreted by ____ into ____

A

specialized endocrine cells; bloodstream

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10
Q

____ travel throughout the body to distant regions, where they elicit a response in target cells

A

Hormones

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11
Q

Chemicals that act locally on cells in their immediate environment are called:

A

Local mediators

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12
Q

_____ do not enter the blood and are not distributed throughout the body

A

Local mediators

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13
Q

Local mediators are ____ that are rapidly ____

A

peptides; destroyed or removed

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14
Q

Examples of cell signaling molecules

A
  • growth factors
  • cytokines
  • prostaglandins
  • histamine
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15
Q

Which signaling molecules are extracellular?

A
  • neurotransmitters
  • hormones
  • local mediators

1st messengers

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16
Q

What is the main difference in modes of signaling?

A

The distance the signal travels to reach the target cell

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17
Q

Modes of chemical signaling (4)

A
  • autocrine
  • paracrine
  • endocrine
  • direct cell contact via gap junctions
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18
Q

Which cell signaling molecule(s) are involved in autocrine signaling?

A

Local mediators (growth factors, cytokines)

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19
Q

Which cell signaling molecule(s) are involved in paracrine signaling?

A
  • local mediators
  • neurotransmitters
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20
Q

Which cell signaling molecule(s) are involved in endocrine signaling?

A

Hormones

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21
Q

A molecule (like a protein) that has an affinity for a specific ligand is called:

A

Receptor

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22
Q

True or false: not all receptors have a binding specificity for a ligand that is coupled to a process that will evoke a response

A

False - all do

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23
Q

A signaling molecule that binds to a receptor is called:

A

Ligand

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24
Q

Where can receptors be located?

A
  • cell surface
  • inside the cell
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25
Q

The ligands for intracellular receptors are ____

A

hydrophobic

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26
Q

____ easily diffuse across cell membranes, where they bind with ____

A

Lipid-soluble molecules; intracellular receptors

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27
Q

Examples of hydrophobic signaling molecules

A
  • steroid hormones
  • vitamin D
  • retinoic acid
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28
Q

What happens when ligand binds to intracellular receptor?

A

A complex forms

many complexes can function as transcription factors

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29
Q

The ligands for cell surface receptors are _____

A

hydrophilic

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30
Q

Examples of ligands for cell surface receptors

A
  • neurotransmitters
  • peptide hormones
  • local mediators
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31
Q

____ cannot penetrate the lipid bilayer so their signaling mechanism is mediated by

A

Hydrophilic molecules; binding to cell membrane receptors

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32
Q

Main types of cell surface receptors (3)

A
  • ion channel linked receptors
  • G-protein coupled receptors
  • Enzyme linked receptors
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33
Q

Signaling ligands for ion channel linked receptors

A

Often neurotransmitters

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34
Q

Ion channel linked receptors contain:

A
  • Ion channel
  • open or closed state is gated by the binding of a ligand to the receptors
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35
Q

What happens when neurotransmitter binds to ion channel linked receptor?

A

Ion channel pore opens and allows ions to flow across the membrane
Ion channel stays open until neurotransmitter dissociates

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36
Q

Ion channel linked receptors also known as:

A
  • ligand-gated ion channels
  • ionotrophic receptors
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37
Q

Examples of ion channel linked receptors

A
  • nicotinic receptors
  • N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors
  • GABA receptors
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38
Q

Steps of ion flow via ion channel linked receptor

A
  1. NT binds
  2. Channel opens
  3. Ions flow across membrane (extra to intracellular)
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39
Q

nAChR

A

Nicotinic receptor

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40
Q

Nicotinic receptor is composed of what subunits, and how are they arranged in the cell membrane?

A
  • 2 alpha
  • 1 beta
  • 1 gamma
  • 1 delta
    Subunits assemble to form a pore in the cell membrane
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41
Q

Nicotinic receptor ligand

A

Acetylcholine (ACh)

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42
Q

Steps of nicotinic receptor activation

A
  • 2 Ach molecules bind to 2 alpha subunits
  • ion channel pore opens
  • Na+ moves intracellularly
  • K+ exit the cell
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43
Q

Nicotinic receptor activation causes _____ event

A

Depolarization

(excitation)

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44
Q

Where are nicotinic receptors located?

A
  • neuromuscular junction
  • autonomic nerve ganglia
  • CNS
  • adrenal medulla

Nico lives in NACA

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45
Q

Nicotinic receptor is an example of what type of receptor?

A

Ion channel linked receptors

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46
Q

GPCR is a ____ receptor with ____ transmembrane segments that are associated with ____

A

membrane; 7; G proteins

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47
Q

G proteins associated with GPCRs are ____

A

Heterotrimeric (have 3 different subunits)

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48
Q

G proteins have what subunits?

A
  • alpha
  • beta
  • gamma
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49
Q

GPCR is also known as:

A
  • G protein-linked receptors
  • Trimeric G-protein-coupled receptors
  • Metabotropic receptors
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50
Q

What is the largest family of cell surface receptors?

A

GPCR

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51
Q

GPCR mediate a response to a wide range of signaling molecules (ligands), including:

A
  • hormones
  • neurotransmitters
  • peptides
  • odorants
  • tastants
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52
Q

GPCR associate with the ligand on what side?

A

Extracellular

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53
Q

Muscarinic receptors, alpha and beta adrenergic receptors, dopamine receptors are examples of:

A

GPCR

MAD

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54
Q

G proteins switch between ____ and ____ states

A

inactive GDP-bound; active GTP-bound

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55
Q

GPCR is associated with what energy source?

A

GTP

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56
Q

Explain the G protein signaling cycle

A
  1. ligand binds to the GPCR extracellular region –> induces conformational change of G protein
  2. GDP bound to alpha subunit is exchanged for GTP
  3. When GTP is bound, the alpha and beta-gamma dissociate
  4. GTP-bound alpha subunit and beta-gamma subunit can trigger cell response
  5. When GTP is hydrolyzed to GDP, complex resets/reassociates and signaling is terminated
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57
Q

When ligand binds to GPCR, G protein can activate several:

A

downstream pathways and effectors

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58
Q

GPCR mechanism of action can involve what enzymes/proteins/messengers?

A
  • activation of effector enzymes that produce intracellular 2nd messengers (cAMP, IP3-DAG)
  • activation of 2nd messengers (Protein kinase A) that trigger signaling cascades/stimulate gene transcription in the nucleus
  • can directly activate nearby ion channels

GPCR’s are MAD; this is my CASA now!

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59
Q

What are 2nd messengers?

A

Intracellular signaling molecules released by the cell in response to exposure to extracellular signaling molecules

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60
Q

Receptors transduce ___ into ____ so that the extracellular signal may be propagated ____

A

1st messengers; 2nd messengers; intracellularly

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61
Q

Examples of 2nd messenger molecules

A
  • cAMP
  • cGMP
  • inositol triphosphate (IP3)
  • diacylglycerol (DAG)
  • Ca2+

CCC my ID!!

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62
Q

To amplify the strength of the original 1st messenger signal, 2nd messengers may be coupled to:

A

Multi kinase cascade pathways (Ras/Raf/MAP)

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63
Q

G proteins can have a different set of ____ and is often categorized by the type of ___ present

A

subunits (alpha, beta, gamma); alpha subunit

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64
Q

Norepinephrine binds to ____ (type of GPCR) and causes activation of ___ (G protein type) to cause _____

A

beta-adrenergic; Gs; increase of protein phosphorylation

65
Q

Glutamate binds to ____ (type of GPCR) and causes activation of ___ (G protein type) to cause _____

A

mGluR; Gq; increase in protein phosphorylation and activate calcium-binding proteins

66
Q

Dopamine binds to ____ (type of GPCR) and causes activation of ___ (G protein type) to cause _____

A

Dopamine D2; Gi; decrease in protein phosphorylation

67
Q

Muscarinic receptor is a type of:

68
Q

There are ___ receptor subclasses of muscarinic receptors

69
Q

What is the ligand for a muscarinic receptor?

A

Acetylcholine (binds to M1, M2, M3)

70
Q

Muscarinic receptors (and its ligand Ach) allow for mediation of:

A

Parasympathetic nerve control in different tissues and organs

“Inside muscles” = parasympathetic

71
Q

True or false: Ach has inhibitory effects in all tissues it acts in

A

False - can have excitatory or inhibitory effects in specific tissues

72
Q

The pathways activated by a particular GPCR are determined by:

A

The specific G-protein (Gs, Gq, Gi) associated with it

73
Q

Which muscarinic receptor subclass is associated with gastric and saliva secretion?

A

M1 and M3

M3 is also vasoconstriction and eye accomodation

74
Q

Which muscarinic receptor subclass is associated with slowing heart rate?

75
Q

Which G protein is associated with M1?

76
Q

Which G protein is associated with M2?

77
Q

Which G protein is associated with M3?

78
Q

Enzyme-linked receptors have what kind of functions?

A
  • enzymatic (catalytic)
  • receptor
79
Q

2nd biggest group of cell surface receptors

A

Enzyme-linked receptors

80
Q

Enzyme-linked receptors have roles in:

A
  • cell growth
  • cell division/proliferation/differentiation
  • apoptosis
  • tissue repair
81
Q

Enzyme-linked receptors structure

A

3 domains - ligand-binding domain, transmembrane domain, intracellular domain (enzymatic/active)

82
Q

Ligands for enzyme-linked receptors

A

growth factors and cytokines, such as:
- EGF
- platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
- fibroblast growth factor (FGF)

83
Q

The transmembrane domain is composed of a series of ____ amino acids in enzyme-linked receptors

A

Hydrophobic

84
Q

Each subunit of enzyme-linked receptors has ___ transmembrane segment

85
Q

The enzymatic portion of the enzyme-linked receptor is located on

A

Intracellular surface

86
Q

Receptor tyrosine kinases are a type of

A

Enzyme-linked receptors

87
Q

Mechanism of action of enzyme-linked receptors

A
  • ligand (growth factor/hormone) binds to the receptor on the extracellular domain
  • conformational change to transmembrane protein
  • intrinsic enzymatic activity occurs
  • leads to 2nd messengers and intracellular signaling cascades
88
Q

Responses to ligands in enzyme-linked receptors are usually ____ and require ____

A

slow; many intracellular signaling steps

89
Q

Signaling molecules released by neurons

A

Neurotransmitters

90
Q

____ in neurons causes the release of neurotransmitter

A

Electrical signal

91
Q

Neurotransmitters bind to receptor proteins on the target cell, which can be:

A
  • neuron
  • muscle
  • gland
92
Q

Neurotransmitters are hydrophobic or hydrophilic? Where do they bind?

A

Hydrophilic, so they can bind to cell surface receptors

93
Q

True or false: each neurotransmitter ligand binds to several families of receptors

A

False - specific family of receptors (either ion channel-linked or GPCRs)

94
Q

Primary chemical signals in the ANS

95
Q

_____ of neurotransmitters function in the CNS

A

Wide variety

96
Q

Examples of neurotransmitters

A
  • Norepinephrine (NE)
  • Epinephrine
  • Dopamine
  • Acetylcholine
  • Serotonin (5-HT)
  • Histamine
  • Glutamate
  • GABA
  • Opioids (endorphin, enkephalin)

“Neda’s Hogg”

97
Q
  1. Neuropeptides are synthesized via ____ in the ___ of the nerve cell body and packaged into ____. Then transported to the nerve terminal by ______
    OR
  2. Neurotransmitters (amino acid derived) are synthesized and packaged into ____ in _____
A
  1. transcription and translation; ER; secretory granules; fast axonal transport
  2. synaptic vesicles; pre-synaptic nerve terminals
98
Q

Ach synthesis occurs in the:

A

Presynaptic nerve terminal

99
Q

Ach is synthesized from ____ through a reaction catalyzed by _____

A

Acetyl coenzyme A and choline; choline acetyltransferase

100
Q

ACh is degraded by:

A

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

101
Q

Catecholamines examples

A
  • dopamine
  • DOPA
  • Norepinephrine
  • Epinephrine

associated with fight or flight and you want it to ENDD

102
Q

Catecholamines are all derived from:

103
Q

Tyrosine comes from

104
Q

Catecholamine synthesis starts with conversion of tyrosine to:

A

Tyrosine –> DOPA –> dopamine –> norepinephrine –> epinephrine

105
Q

Catecholamines are produced, stored, and released from ____ and the ____

A

Nerve terminals (neurotransmitters); adrenal medulla (hormones)

106
Q

Serotonin synthesis occurs in the

A

Presynaptic nerve terminal

107
Q

Serotonin precursor amino acid is

A

Tryptophan

108
Q

Where does neurotransmitter signaling work?

A
  1. CNS synapses
  2. Neuromuscular junction
  3. Autonomic nerves
109
Q

Signaling events at the CNS synapse

A
  1. APs arrive at axon terminal
  2. Voltage gated Ca2+ channels open
  3. Ca2+ enters the cell
  4. Ca2+ signals to vesicles
  5. Vesicles move to the membrane
  6. Docked vesicles release neurotransmitter by exocytosis
  7. Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors
110
Q

____ is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the CBS

111
Q

Glutamate activates 2 types of receptors:

A
  • ionotropic receptors
  • GPCRs (metabotropic receptors)
112
Q

Glutamate activates ionotropic receptors that have an ____ and generate ______

Name the subclasses

A

integral ion channel (cation permeable pore); excitatory post-synaptic potentials

AMPA subclass, N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subclass

113
Q

Glutamate activate GPCRs which activate:

A

Second messenger cascades like GluR1-GluR8

114
Q

What is the NMJ?

A

Synapse between a motor neuron of the somatic nervous system and a skeletal muscle fiber

115
Q

Skeletal muscle excitation begins with ACh binding to _____ on the muscle cell to result in _____

A

nAChRs; muscle contraction

116
Q

True or false: At the NMJ, the neurotransmitter is always acetylcholine

117
Q

Autonomic nerves are divided into what 2 groups?

A
  • Cholinergic
  • Adrenergic
118
Q

Cholinergic

A

Transmission of nerve impulses mediated by ACh

119
Q

Adrenergic

A

Transmission of nerve impulses mediated by NE and E

120
Q

All adrenergic receptors are:

121
Q

Acetylcholine can bind to what type of receptors:

A
  • nicotinic (ligand-gated ion channels, excitatory)
  • Muscarinic (GPCRs, excitatory or inhibitory)
122
Q

Example of the effect of a common neurotransmitter binding to different GPCRs

NE or E binds to a1 receptor to activate a Gs protein that activates _____, which catalyzes the conversion of PIP2 to ______. ___ triggers Ca2+ release, and ____ activates protein kinase C

A

phospholipase C; IP3 and DAG; IP3; DAG

123
Q

Predominant receptor in vascular smooth muscle; net effect is?

A

a1 adrenergic; arteriolar smooth muscle contraction

124
Q

NE signaling at a2 adrenergic receptors

NE/E binding to a a2 receptor (GPCR) activates a Gi protein that decreases _____ activity and decreases ____. Net effect is _____

A

adenylate cyclase; cAMP; inhibitory

125
Q

NE signaling at B1 adrenergic receptors

NE/E binding to B1 receptor (GPCR) activates a Gs protein to increase ____ activity and increase ____. Net effect is ____

A

adenylate cyclase activity; cAMP

increased heart rate and contractility

126
Q

____ is the predominant adrenergic receptor in the heart

127
Q

The endocrine system consists of:

A

cells, tissues, organs that secrete hormones

128
Q

Examples of endocrine glands

A
  • pituitary
  • thyroid
  • parathyroid
  • pancreas
  • adrenal glands
  • gonads
129
Q

3 basic types of hormones

A
  • peptide hormones
  • amino acid-derived hormones
  • steroid hormones
130
Q

Peptide hormones are synthesized by _____ and often undergo ____ in the ER

A

gene transcription/translation; post-translational processing in the ER

131
Q

Active peptide hormone is released via:

A

Packaged into secretory vesicles and released by exocytosis

132
Q

Peptide hormones are released in response to:

A

Stimuli (ex. high blood glucose levels)

133
Q

Examples of peptide hormones

A
  • insulin
  • antidiuretic hormone
  • oxytocin
  • follicle-stimulating hormone
134
Q

Amino acid derived hormones are synthesized from

A

Tyrosine or tryptophan

135
Q

True or false: amino acid derived hormones are relatively large molecules

A

False - small

136
Q

Where are amino-acid derived hormones stored?

A

In endocrine cells until needed

137
Q

Examples of amino-acid derived hormones

A
  • catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine synthesized in adrenal medulla)
  • thyroxine (T4, thyroid gland)
  • melatonin (pineal gland)
138
Q

Steroid hormones are derived from

A

modification of cholesterol in the adrenal cortex, gonads, placenta

139
Q

Steroid hormones are synthesized in

A

mitochondria and smooth ER

140
Q

Steroid hormones examples

A
  • cortisol
  • aldosterone
  • estrogen
  • testosterone
  • progesterone
141
Q

Which hormones are water-soluble?

A

Amino acid derived, peptide hormones

142
Q

What kinds of receptors are used for water soluble hormones?

A
  • ion channel linked
  • enzyme-linked
  • G protein linked

all of the cell membrane receptors

143
Q

Water-soluble hormone receptors will be located:

A

on cell surface (cannot pass through lipid membrane)

144
Q

Steroid hormones are ____ soluble and thus can diffuse ____

A

lipid; into a cell membrane and nucleus

145
Q

Where are steroid hormone receptors located?

A

Intracellular; or the hormone can control regions of gene to trigger gene expression

146
Q

How are steroid hormones transported in blood?

A

They are water insoluble and need carrier proteins for transport in blood

147
Q

Hormone binding transport proteins

A

Corticosteroid binding globulin
Albumin (non-specific)
Thyroxine-binding globulin
Sex hormone binding globulin

148
Q

Which hormones do not need transport proteins to travel?

A

Amino-acid derived hormones, peptide hormones

149
Q

True or false: steroids remain in circulation longer than peptide hormones

150
Q

Cortisol half life

151
Q

Epinephrine half life

152
Q

Which of the following hormones does not require a binding protein for transport in blood?
A. testosterone
B. aldosterone
C. insulin
D. cortisol

A

C. Insulin

153
Q

Tropic hormones

A

hormones that target other endocrine glands

154
Q

Tropic hormones typically stimulate a gland to

A

release other/additional hormones

155
Q

Most tropic hormones are released by:

A

Anterior pituitary gland

156
Q

____ function in feedback loop systems

A

Tropic hormones

157
Q

Regulation of hormone release can be done by:

A
  1. hormone regulation
  2. nutrient or ion regulation
  3. neural regulation
158
Q

Examples of nutrient or ion regulation

A
  • glucose stimulates insulin release from pancreatic beta cells
  • oscillations of intracellular Ca2+ concentration in pancreatic beta cells
159
Q

Examples of neural regulation of endocrine signaling

A
  • stimulation of adrenal medulla by sympathetic nerves causes release of catecholamines (NE and E)
  • circadian rhythms generate recurring cyclic release of hormones
  • diurnal rhythms (cycle once a day) of gonadotropin and cortisol secretion

DEN 7101F - Human Structure and Function (23 decks)

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