Disease Dilemmas 2 Flashcards
What is a contagious disease ?
class of infectious disease easily spread by direct or indirect contact between people.
Give examples of contagious diseases
bacterial - typhoid and plague
Viral - yellow fever and ebola.
what are some infectious diseases that are non-contagious
malaria and filariasis - spread by disease vectors such as mosquitos, worms and larvae.
what are zoonotic diseases ?
infectious diseases such as rabies, plague and psittacosis, which are transmitted from animals to humans.
what are non-infectious diseases ? non-infectious diseases ?
nutritional deficiencies
liefstyle
genetic inheritance
what is an endemic disease ?
exist permanently in a geographical area or population group.
what is an example of an endemic ?
sleeping sickness confined to rural areas in sub saharan Africa
Chagas disease - central and south america
what is sleeping sickness caused by ?
parasite transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected tsetse fly
what is an epidemic ?
outbreak of a disease that attacks many people at the same time and spreads through a population in restricted geographical area.
What happened in the 2014 outbreak of Ebola ?
West Africa
year later - 25,000 people infecte
10,500 deaths - Liberia, Guinea
what is a pandemic?
epidemic which spread worldwide
what are degenerative diseases ?
dominant non-infectious
cardiovascular - heart attack and stroke. cancer chronic respiratory diseases
What is malaria ?
infectious
non-contagious tropical disease
where is malaria ?
africa
latin america
south asia
southeast asia
how many people infected with malaria in 2018
220 million people
what is malaria cause by
malarial parasite is transmitted to humans by mosquitoes which thrive in warm, humid envrionments
what is HIV/AIDS ?
infectious
contagious
what is HIV/AIDS spread by ?
human body fluids such as blood and semen
in 2020, how many people had HIV/AIDS ?
38 million
where is HIV/AIDS concentrated in ?
sub-saharan africa
in 2018 how many cases of tb was there ?
iver 10 million cases
1.5 million deaths
what is tb ?
infectious
highly contagious
what is diabetes ?
non communicable
caused by deficiency of insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas.
how many people does diabetes affect ?
400 million people
4.2 million deaths annually
where is diabetes concentrated ?
north america
east and south asia
what is CVD?
coronary heart disease, stroke, hypertension, angina
how many CVD deaths per year ?
17 million deaths
80 percent in low ans middle income countries.
what is expansion diffusion ?
disease has a source and spreads outwards into new areas.
Meanwhile, carriers in the source area remain infected.
example is outbreak of TB
what is relocation diffusion ?
occurs when a disease leaves the area of origin and moves into new areas
example is cholera epidemic in haiti 2010
what is contagious diffusion ?
spread of disease through direct contact with a carrier
strongly influenced by distance
ebola 2014 example
what is hierarchal diffusion ?
spreads through an ordered sequence of places, usually from the largest centres with the highest connectivity to smaller, more isolated centres.
what is the physical barriers to diffusion ?
distance
mountain ranges
seas
oceans
deserts
climate
what are political borders to diffusion ?
imposing curfews
what is the neighbourhood effect in hagerstrands diffusion model ?
the probability of contact between a carrier and non-carrier is determined by the number of people living in each 5 x 5 km grid square, and their distance apart =.
Thus people living in proximity to carriers have a greater probability of contracting a disease than those located further awat
what are the two other features of the hagerstrands diffusion model ?
- the number of people infected by an epidemic approximates an S-shaped or logistic curve over time. After a slow beginning, the number infected accelerates rapidly until eventually levelling out, as most of the susceptible population have been infected
The progress and diffusion of a disease may be interrupted by physical barriers
How does relief affect global patterns of disease ?
altitude causes abrupt changes in climate and disease habitats
How many people have dengue fever ?
400 million people annually
25,000 detahs
why does climate change responsible for the spread of lyme disease -
Ticks thrive in warmer conditions
examples of zoonotic diseases ?
malaria
sleeping sickness
dengue fever
when does the probability of zoonotic diseases being transmitted to humans increasem ?
- movement of infected wild animals is unrestricted by physical barriers
- controls on the movement of diseased dmestic animals within countries are ineffective
- urbanisation creates suitable habitats for animals such as foxes, raccoons and skunks
- vaccination of pets and domestic livestock is sparse
- limited control within urban areas of feral dogs and cats
- ## hygiene and sanitation are poor
Synoptic link between dieases and water cycle
River flooding in Bangladesh
Water borne diseases
What is river flooding in Bangladesh ?
Bangladesh - Deltaic country that is inevitably prone to significant annual river floods.
These floods support a still largely rural population by delivering more than 1 billion tonnes of fertile soil.
How many floods have there been in Bangldesh since 2015 ?
6 consecutive years of high magnitude floods.
Does the transmission of water-borne pathogens increase during flood years ?
Yes
What did the Bangladesh 2020 floods trigger ?
epidemic of diarrhoea and other water-borne diseases such as typhoid and hepatitis, as drinking water and food became contaminated by bacteria present in the floodwaters.
Globally how many children die from diarrhoea ?
one child under the age of five dies every two minutes
What happened in the 2020 floods of Bangladesh ?
over 40% of country was flooded
3.3 million people affected
750,000 homes waterlogged
1900 schools destroyed
83 died
What is the solution for diarrhoea ?
provide clean water and efficient sanitation
what policies are the Bangldesh gov and NGO’s proposing for support of the floods ?
- the use of oral rehydration solution
- promotion of breastfeeding and reduction of formula pink
- encouragement of handwashing
- use of water purification tablets
- improvements in female education and nutrition
whos is the epidemiological transition model ?
Abdel Omran
What is the epidemiological transition model
?
describes the relationship between development and changing patterns of population age distribution, mortality, fertility, life expectancy and causes of death. Changes are driven by improvements in health care, standards of living and the quality of environment
what are the three epidemiological phases ?
the age of pestilence and famine
The age of receeding pandemics
in post industial societies the rate of mortality slackens
what is the stage of 1. the age of pestilence and famine
In pre-industrial societies mortality is high and fluctuates from year to year
Life expectancy is low and variable, averaging around 30 years
Poor sanitation, contaminated drinking water and low standards of living make people, especially young children, more susceptible to infectious diseases which dominate mortality
Pop growth is slow and intermittent. Today all countries have passed through this phase
what is the stage of the age of receding pandemics ?
In industrial societies with advances in medical tech, diet and hygiene, and improvements in living standards, epidemics causing large-scale mortality become rare. Life expectancy rises above 50 years and population growth is sustained
There is a shift in the main cause of death from infectious diseases to chronic and degenerative diseases
This phase includes many LIDCS and MIDCS today
what is the stage in post-industrial societies the rate of mortality slackens
Further improvements in medical technology, hygiene and living standards mean that mortality related to infectious diseases is rare. Degenerative diseases becomes the main cause of mortality. Man-made diseases associated with environemtnal change become more common. Emerging ecpnomies such as Brazil and China
what is the potential fourth stage of the epidemiological model ?
Age of delayed degenerative diseases - where medical advances delay the onset of degenerative CVD
Raised life expectancy in AC’s
What are diseases linked to lack of vitamins ?
Rickets (Vitamin D)
Scurvy (Vitamin C)
Pellagra (Vitamin B)
What does high temperatures and abundant rainfalls create ?
increase rates of
malaria
dengue fever
sleeping sickness
yellow fever
ebola
what is the case study for air pollution and cancer
India
How does air pollution in india reduce life expectancy ?
reduces life expectnacy of 660 million indians by more than three years
how many indians breathe polluted air ?
99 % of indias 1.2 billion people breathe air polluted above safe levels
What causes air pollution ?
due to emissions of particulates, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and ozone, by motor vehicles and coal-burning power stations and factories.
how is indoor air pollution an issue ?
especially in rural areas, where households lack electricity and depend on biomass fuels such as animal dung for heating and paraffin for cooking and lighting
How many deaths does indoor air pollution cause ?
1 million premature deaths
what is particulate pollution ?
biggest threat to human health
tiny air borne particles smaller than 2.5 micrometres are released by burning fossil fuels and penetrate deep into people lungs
Cause serious respiratory issues as well as lung and heart disease and cancer
what is WHO’s guidelines for safe particulate matter ?
10 micrograms , in India it is 40
How many polluted cities in the world were in Indian in 2018 ?
out of 15, 12 were in India
What has happened to lung function in New Dehli ?
reduced by 40 percent on average
how many people in India were diagnosed with lung cancer in 2020 ?
1 in 68 males
1 in 201 females
what has the indian gov don eabout air pollution levels ?
early 2019, launched National Clean Air Programme
Increase number of air quality monitoring stations
what progress has been made in India to combat air pollution levels ?
- Bihar - chimneys of brick-kilns have been retro-fitted to reduce smoke emissions
- 14 indian cities are currently building rapid transit metro systems
- subsidies for petrol and diesel will be scrapped , 1/3 of all electricity is produced by noxious generators powered by petrol and diesel fuel
- restrictions will be placed on the burning of stubble in fields
what have the EU been doing to reduce air pollution ?
member states allocated 1.8 billion euros to support air quality measures under the European Structural and Investment funds.
2019 - European commision proposed to invest 1 billion euros into 39 clean transport projects to upgrade europe’s rail networks , develop alt fuels infrastructure and try for zero emission water transport
what was World Cancer Day ?
global initiative
drew attention to current cancer ‘epidemic’ and pressing govs to take more action to tackle the disease
what is the case study for malaria ?
ethiopia
where is malaria in ethiopia ?
endemic in 75 per cent of ethiopias land area
hiw many people in ethiopia are at risk of malaria ?
two thirds live in areas at risk of the disease , which kills 70,000 people a year
where are the highest rates of malaria in ethiopia ?
western lowlands
Tigray, Amhara, Gambella provinces
where do mosquitoes thrive ?
warm, humid climates
stagnant surface water
altitude
why is there no malaria in the highlands of ethiopia ?
low average temps
slow the development of mosquitoes and the plasmodium parasite
how does urbanisation increase malaria ?
flooded excavations, garbage dumps, discarded containers and so on provide countless breeding sites
how many episodes do ethiopians suffer of malaria a year ?
5 million
causes 70,000 deaths
how much lost production have sub saharan africa lost to malaria ?
12 billion dol;ars a year
how much of Ethiopians health expenditure does malaria use up ?
40 per cent of national health expenditure
accounts for 10 percent of hospital admissions
12 per cent of health clinic visits
how does malaria have implications for food security ?
western lowlands - resource rich - potential to raise food production
But malaria is endemic in this region
so holds back development
knock on effect in the highlands
cos this region is malaria free , it supports unusually high population densities
as a result, its meagre farming resources have been overexploited for generations, resulting in widespread land degradation
what is the malaria drug of Chloroquine ?
causes the pH in certain parts of the parasites cell to increase, preventing important biochemical reactions
but excessive use can be toxic to humans
what is the malaria drug of mefloquine ?
as people grew resistance to chloroquine, first detected 70 years ago in Thailand, led to the development of alternatives including mefloquine, which unfortunately has psychological impacts on a signifant percentage of those who take it.
What is in the National Malaria Strategic Plan ?
Current methods of controlling malaria interventions implemented in Ethiopia include insecticide-treated mosquito nets, indoor residual spraying, and mosquito larval source reduction.
what is the case study for cancer ?
UK
what causes cancer ?
mutations in cells DNA cause the cell to grow out of control.
Sometimes mutatiojs are caused by chemicals and other toxic substances in the environment
what are risk factors for cancer ?
genetic makeup , lifestyle, diet , overall health, gender, age
What are lifestyle choices that cause cancer ?
sunbeds cause skin cancer
opps for sunbathing have increased in last 50 yrs
wealth = preference for meat and dairy products
fast food + ready meals = increases risk of bowel cancer
alcohol consumption - oral, oesophageal, liver cancer
lack of exercise
how many cancer cases are related to smoking in the UK ?
1/5
how many people are diagnosed with cancer in a day in the UK ?
more than 980
how many people die a day in the uk from cancer ?
440
how have incidence rates of cancer in the UK increased since the early 1990s ?/
by 12%
how many working age people die from cancer in the UK a year
35,000
how many people under the age of 65 are diagnosed with cancer each year in UK ?
650,000
how does cancer affect the workforce ?
many people dont return after because of the after-effects.
they need to leave for treatment
many may change jobs or reduce hours
how many people are caring for someone with cancer in the UK ?
over 1 million
in 2108 how many people under the age of 70 lost their lives to cancer in uk ?
540,000
these individuals would have contributed £585 million to the UK economy
in the next 5 years how much of the workforce will the UK lose ?
over 200,000 potential workers
what does deprivation increase ?
likelihood of
- smoking
- alcohol consumption
- obesity
which UK authority has the highest cancer rate ?
Glasgow
how many more women who are the most wealthy survive bladder cancer than the most deprived in UK ?
14.2% more likely to survive
what is the UK govs target about cancer
to save 5000 lives a year
reduce the gap in survival rates that currently exists between the UK and other european countries
what are governmental direct strategies to mitigate cancer ?
- Investment in advanced medical technology such as more precise forms of radiotherapy, and diagnostic methods such as endoscopy for early diagnosis and intervention
- Mass screening for breast, cervical and bowel cancer is already well established and has proved highyl effective
- Reducing waiting times
what are indirect strategies governemtnal to mitigate cancer ?
Emphasis on changing lifestyle and cancer prevention
Education and health campaigns informing public of the dangers of smoking, excessive drinking and sugary, unbalanced diets can reduce the incidence of preventable cancers
What is the gov doing about skin cancer ?
direct - legislating to control the commercial use of sunbeds, with age limits, and standards of supervision and staff training.
Publicity campaigns warn dangers of sunbathing and advise on sunscreens and clothing
what is the meterological offic doing about skin cancer ?
during summer months, regularly issue forecasts on UV intensities and safe limits of exposure.
what are international agencies and charities doing about cancer ?
The International Agency for Research on Cancer is part of WHO
It conducts epidemiology and lab research into the causes of the disease
Cancer UK - charity that researches the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of cancer. Funded by donations, legacies and cahrity events, iy operates in universities and hospitals in UK
when was WHO established ?
1948
where is the HQ of WHO ?
Geneva, Switzerland
who does WHO work closely with ?
UNICEF
World Bank
NGO’s such as Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
what does WHO do ?
- gather health data
- provide leadership and identifying prority areas in matters critical to health
reserach health problems
monitor international health situation
support UN member states to devise health strategies
provide technical support during health crises
what did WHO do following the Nepal earthquake disaster
delievered emergency health services in the form of mobile medical units and supported foreign medical teams in areas worst hit by the quake.
when did WHO declare COVID19 as a pandemic ?
11th March 2020
WHen did Haiti get hit by aan earthquake ?
Jan 2010, powerful magnitude 7 earthquake
what was the death toll of haiti earthquake ?
30,000 to 300,000
What is the economic status like in Haiti ?
60% of people survive on less than 2.5 dollars a day
how many people in Port au Prince lived in slums before the haiti earthquake ?
86 % of people , 50% had no access to toilet
when did cholear outbreak begi n after haiti earthquake ?
10 Oct 2010
spread by nepalese soldiers flown in as part of the international effort to cope with the disaster
how many cholera cases were there between initial outbreak and nov 2014 ? haiti earthquake ?
720,000 cases with 8700 deaths
What was the Birthis Red Cross response programme to the cholera outbreak haiti earthquake ?
- deliver clean drink water to 300,000 people living in camp in Port au Prince
- massive hygiene programme, build 1300 latrines for 250,000 people
- provide medical supplies to the main hospital in Saint Marc in affected area
- treat 18,700 cases of cholera in treatment units in La Piste camp in Port au Prince and in Port a Piment camp in southwest Haiti
- raise awareness among local people on how to avoid infection and of symptoms
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