Developmental Psychology Flashcards
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
French philosopher; society is a detriment to optimal development. Wrote “Emile: Concerning Education” (Book on child-raising; was banned & R. fled France)
British empiricist school of thought
John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, David Hume, James Mill, John Stuart Mill
All knowledge is gained through experience.
John Locke: tabula rasa
Child development is completely reliant on experiences & environment.
Darwin
Kept a baby biography sequencing physical and psychological development.
His evolutionary theory stressed the importance of studying the mind to help the individual adapt to the environment. Also, caused researchers to study individual difference in ability.
Functionalist system of thought
Concerned with studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment
G. Stanley Hall
Father of developmental psychology; conducted empirical research on children (one of the first)
Also one of the founders of the APA.
Also the founder of child and adolescent psychology.
John Watson (1878-1958)
American psychologist; shared Locke’s tabula rasa view. “Give me a dozen healthy infants… train him to become any type of specialist I might select”
Objective methods must be used to study psychology; early behaviorist.
Goal of psychology should be to predict behavioral responses given a particular stimulus
Arnold Gesell
Psychological development occurs as a maturational biological process, regardless of practice or training.
Nativist (nature rather than nurture)
A developmental blueprint exists from birth.
Psychodynamic orientation
A system of thought that postulates the existence of unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality
Cognitive structuralists
Most influenced by Piaget; in opposition of behaviorists
Emphasize the thinking ability of people.
Breaks consciousness down to its elements.
Cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies, sequential cohort studies
Cross-sectional: compare groups of subjects of different ages once (ex. Groups 1, 2, 3)
Longitudinal: compare a specific group of people over an extended period of time (Group 1 over time)
Sequential cohort: combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods (Groups 1, 2, 3 over time)
Clinical method or case study
Studies the development of a particular child
Nature versus nurture controversy
Nature: human capabilities are innate and individual differences are genetic
Nurture: human capabilities are determined by the environment and shaped by experience
Now is more recognized as a dynamic interaction rather than holding two polar camps
Gregor Mendel
Initiated the study of genetics; hypothesized the existence of a basic unit of heredity (gene)
Suggested that a specific trait was controlled by an alternative form of gene called an allele (D/r)
Eye Color (B=Brown, b=blue)
Brown: BB, Bb, & bB
Blue: bb
Genotype
Total genetic makeup of an individual
Phenotype
Collection of expressed traits in observable characteristics
Identical genotypes can express different phenotypes due to environmental variation.
Likewise, differing genotypes can result in identical phenotypes (Bb and BB are both brown eyes)
Gametes
Sperm and egg cells; haploid (23 single chromosomes)
R. C. Tryon
Studied the inheritance of maze-running ability in lab rats.
Rats were divided into three groups based on initial maze performance: maze-bright, maze-dull, and intermediate.
Used selective breeding (B w/ B & d w/ d) over several generations. Difference between bright and dull rats intensified over generations. –> learning ability has a genetic basis
Research Methods (determining degree of genetic influence)
Family studies, twin studies, adoption studies
Lewis Terman
Conducted a large-scale longitudinal study following the development of children with high IQ and groups of children with typical IQ over time.
Down’s Syndrome
Extra 21st chromosome
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Degenerative disease of the nervous system. Enzyme needed to digest phenylalanine (in milk and other foods) doesn’t function.
If untreated or undetected, can result in intellectual disability
(Easily avoid symptoms with a strict diet)
Klinefelter’s syndrome
XXY; males, often sterile and sometimes display intellectual disability
Turner’s syndrome
X; females, failure to develop secondary sex characteristics
Zygote
Single cell (sperm cell + ovum)
Germinal Period
2 weeks after conception; fertilized egg travels down the Fallopian tube and implants in uterine wall
Embryonic period
8 weeks after germinal period
Fetal period
Begins in third month with measurable electrical brain activity
Thalidomide
A tranquilizer prescribed to many English mothers in the 50s –> missing or malformed limbs and defects of the heart, eyes, digestive tract, ears, and kidneys
Moro reflex
Infants react to abrupt movements of their heads by flinging out their arms and the bringing their arms back to their bodies (like hugging themselves)
Babinski reflex
Toes spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated
Neonatal reflexes
Rooting, Moro, Babinski, grasping
Jean Piaget
Four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
Believed that language development was directed by the development of thought.
According to Piaget, during infancy, children learn from…
Interacting with the environment through reflexive behaviors.
Piaget’s Schemata
Infants develop behavioral schemata, characterized by action tendencies; older children develop operational schemata, characterized by more abstract representations of cognition
Piaget’s theory of adaptation
Adaptation takes place through two complementary processes: assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation (Piaget)
Process if interpreting new information in terms of existing schemata.
Accommodation (Piaget)
Occurs when new information doesn’t fit existing schemata; modify existing schema to adapt to include new information
Sensorimotor Stage
First of Piaget’s stages, birth to 2
Primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, object permanence
Primary circular reactions
Reflex activities characteristic of sensorimotor stage; the infant begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement
Ex. Sucking when hungry as a goal-oriented behavior
Restricted to motions concerned with the body
Secondary circular reactions
Reflex activities characteristic of sensorimotor stage; directed toward manipulation of objects in the environment
Object permanence marks…
Beginning of representational thought; child can recognize external objects and events
Preoperational stage (Piaget)
Age 2-7; centration, egocentrism, conservation
Centration
Tendency to be able to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon
Related to egocentrism
Piaget’s Preoperational
Egocentrism
Characteristic of the preoperational stage
Conservation
Children of preoperational stage do not understand concept of conservation of matter.
Concrete operational stage (Piaget)
Age 7-11; have concepts of conservation and take perspective of others but can’t engage in abstract thought
Formal operational (Piaget)
“Think like a scientist”; can think logically about abstract ideas.
Used pendulum experiment (children had to figure out what variable affects pendulum frequency)
Vigotsky & zone of proximal development
The child’s internalization of various aspects of culture drives cognitive development.
Zone of proximal development: refers to skills and abilities have not yet fully developed that are in the process of development; Child needs guidance to demonstrate those skills and abilities.
Babbling
Lenneberg, Reblsky, & Nichols (1965)
Age babbling begins is about the same for all children, deaf and hearing.
Frequency increases in hearing children and rapidly decreases in deaf children
Language acquisition
One word utterances by around 18 months (~12 words)
18-20 months: begin combining words
Age 30-36 months: begin producing longer sentences and grammatical errors increase: overregulation (“goed”)
N. Chomsky
Children must have some special innate capacity for language acquisition: Language Acquisition Device (LAD), triggered by exposure to language
Transformational grammar
Transformational grammar
Word order affects meaning; syntactic transformations
Genie
Could learn vocab and some syntax, but ultimately could not master language
Evidence for critical period
S. Freud
Drive to reduce sexual tension is the underlying force accounting for psychological development.
Five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
Oral stage
First of Freud’s stages of development
Birth to 1 year
Obtain gratification through biting and sucking
Orally fixated adults exhibit excessive dependency
Anal stage
Freud’s second stage of development
1-3 years old
Gratification obtained through retention and elimination of waste
Fixation in adults would exhibit excessive orderliness or sloppiness
Phallic stage
Freud’s third stage
Age 3-5
Resolution of Oedipal conflict (Electra conflict)
Child de-eroticizes by focusing on school or collecting objects
Latency period
Freud’s fourth stage
Age 5 to puberty
Libido has been sublimated
Genital stage
Final of Freud’s stages
Puberty through adulthood
Person enters into healthy sexual relationships
Erik Erikson (First four stages)
Psychosocial theory; sequence of crises guides development (8 stages)
Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 1): resolution is trusting environment
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3): feeling of will & self-control
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6): purpose, initiative, and accomplishment (if not, child may show-off to deal with guilt)
Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12): child can affect the world in a way that is desired, feel competent (if not, sense of inadequacy, low self-esteem)
Erik Erikson (Second four stages)
- Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence): physiological revolution; favorable outcome is fidelity and self-view of integrated person with loyalties (if not, confusion of identity)
- Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood): favorable result is love; commitment to self and another (if not, avoidance of commitment and alienation)
- Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle age): resolution results in productive, caring, contributing member of society (if not, self-indulgent, bored, self-centered)
- Integrity vs. Despair (old age): favorably resolved –> wisdom; unfavorably resolved –> bitterness, worthlessness
Temperament
An ind’s pattern if responding to the environment
Heritable, emerges during infancy, stable over time
Thomas & Chess
Longitudinal study on temperament
Based on their results, proposed three initial temperaments in infants: easy, slow to warm up, and difficult
Measuring temperament
Parental reports of child behavior, observation in naturalistic settings (home), observations in lab settings
Wolff, Crying
Three distinct cries in newborns: hungry, angry, pain
Pain cries increase adult heart rate even in nonparent adults
As early as second month, infant learns that caregivers respond to crying.
Wolff observed that an infant will cry if the person it is looking at leaves the room and stop when they return
Social smiling
At first can be produced by any stimulus, then only people.
By five months, only elicited by familiar faces
Fear
During first year, mostly just separation or stranger anxiety
After the first year, reserved only to sudden absence of a specific person or the presence of a person or object that has been harmful to the infant in the past
Often context dependent
H. Harlow
Studied baby rhesus monkeys; took baby monkeys from their mothers 6 to 12 hours after birth –> replaced them with surrogates: wire or cloth. Wire mother provided food.
Bowlby
Phases of attachment:
First, inf. reacts same to all smiling adults.
By 3 mo., inf. can tell if familiar/unfamiliar
6 mo. Inf. specifically seeks out mother
9-12 mo., bonding intensifies; separation anxiety occurs
By age 3, the child can separate from mother without distress
Mary Ainsworth
Strange situation; to study attachment.
Secure: mildly distressed when mom leaves, consoled/happy upon return
Insecure/avoidant: not distressed, avoid contact with mom upon return
Insecure/resistant: distressed by separation, resist physical contact with mom upon return
Strange situation
Ainsworth; Child is given time to explore unfamiliar room, stranger enters, interacts with mother and infant, mom leaves, stranger interacts with baby, mom returns, stranger leaves, mom leaves, stranger returns, mom returns, stranger leaves.
Lorenz
Studied imprinting (early rapid attachment) in birds Believed that imprinting happens during a critical period
Kohlberg
Three phases (2 stages each for 6 total stages)
Phase 1: PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY, Stage 1: learns right and wrong with orientation toward punishment and obedience, Stage 2: orientation toward reciprocity (instrumental relativist stage)
Phase 2: CONVENTIONAL MORALITY, Stage 3: learn by social rules and approval ("good girl, nice boy" orientation), Stage 4: morality defined by authority ("law and order orientation")
Phase 3: POST CONVENTIONAL MORALITY, Stage 5: social contract orientation (rules are designed to ensure the greater good), Stage 6: has learned and acts toward a set of universal ethical principlesHeinz Dilemma
Kohlberg’s test to determine moral stage of an individual, contains a series of moral dilemmas. Responses place individual in one of Kohlberg’s six stages. The Heinz dilemma describes man needs drug for wife, man can’t afford drug, man steals drug to save wife. Was Heinz right or wrong?
Reasoning behind response is most important
Carol Gilligan
Criticized Kohlberg’s stages saying that gender is not considered.
His research was done with males only. Does not apply then to female moral development.
Theoretical perspectives of Gender Differences in Development
Sociobiologists: consider historical survival function of behaviors
Social learning theorists: consider social environment and modeling the behavior of peers and adults of their same gender
Cognitive developmental theorists: consider the importance of convictions that children have concerning gender
Kohlberg’s Gender Stages
Three stages of self-socialization: Gender labeling (age 2-3) identify gender and are able to label self and others Gender stability (age 3-4) superficially understand that their gender is stable Gender consistency (age 4-7) understand permanency of gender, regardless of changing behavior
Gender schematic processing theory
Proposed by Martin & Halverson
Builds on Kohlberg’s theory; become more interested in assuming behaviors that align with their gender identity and less interested in those that align with the opposite gender.
Diane Baumrind
Measured parental control, nurturance, clarity of communication, and maturity demands, then proposed three parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive
Children with authoritarian or permissive parents have difficulties with school and peer relations
Children with authoritative parents are most socially and academically competent
Baumrind’s three parenting styles
Authoritarian: punitive control and lack of emotional warmth
Authoritative: high demands for compliance, positive reinforcement, high emotional warmth
Permissive: high in warmth, lack in control/demand measures
Fatherhood
Play more vigorously with child than mother
Mothers stress verbal rather than physical interactions
As a pattern/tendency
