Core Studies Section B And C Flashcards
What is the nature/nurture debate?
Extent to which particular aspects of behaviour are a product of either inherited or acquired influences.
Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors.
Nurture is down to external factors that influence behaviours e.g life experiences.
What is the free will/determinism debate?
The free will vs determinism debate revolves around the extent to which our behaviour is the result of forces over which we have no control or whether people are able to decide for themselves whether to act or behave in a certain way.
What is the reductionism/holism debate?
Reductionism likes to divide explanations of behaviour into separate components, whilst holism likes to look at the picture as a whole.
What is the individual/ situational explanation?
Individual-Look to the person as the cause of behaviour, specifically their personalities and dispositions.
Situational- Draw on circumstances around individuals; for example their group membership of the environmental context.
What does usefulness research mean?
Research that adds to our knowledge and can be applied to real world situations
What are some areas that are considered when looking at ethics?
respect, informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, competence, debrief, deception etc.
What are the 3 main areas of socially sensitive research that are looked at?
stigma, political consequences and harm
What are some areas that are considered when looking at psych as a science?
Cause and effect, falsification, replicability, objectivity, induction, hypothesis testing, standardisation, control of variables etc.
How to Baron-Cohen link to the nature area?
Looks at findings of people with autism which is a biological disorder which indicate the role of nature
How does Chaney link to the nurture side of the debate?
Suggests that in practical terms, the effects of reinforcement can influence children’s health behaviours, and illustration of nurture.
How could Casey link to both sides of the freewill/determinism debate?
Determinism- since early behaviour seems to predict adults ability to resist temptation
Freewill-The idea that everyone has a choice to resist temptation
What other study could link to both sides of the freewill/determinism debate?
Milgram
How does Maguire and Sperry link to the reductionism/holism perspective?
Reductionist: They both provide evidence for underlying causes. Showing that brain structures have direct consequences on cognition and behaviour. Such studies can lead to an understanding of what is going wrong when people suffer from brain damage or disorders and show how problems might be avoided through rehabilitation. This reduces behaviour down to brain disorders rather than the whole picture of environment etc.
How does Lee link to the holistic side of the debate?
He considers the diversity of influences on children’s behaviour worldwide, showing that in terms of practical generalisations, e.g. school disciplines, a single definition or approach is not sufficient.
How does Milgram link to the situational debate?
Situational factors of the role of the authority figure
What studies look at the individual debate?
Baron-cohen and Hancock
What is the key theme for Milgram and Bocchiaro?
Responses to people in authority
What is the key theme for Piliavin and Levine?
Responses to people in need
What is the key theme for Loftus and Palmer and Grant
Memory
What is the key them for Moray and Simon and Chabris
Attention
What is the key theme for Bandura and Chaney
External influences on children’s behaviour
What is the key theme for Kohlberg and Lee
Moral development
What is the key theme for Sperry and Casey
Regions of the brain
What is the key theme for Blakemore and Cooper and Maguire?
Brain Plasticity
What is the key them for Freud and Baron-cohen?
Understanding disorder
What is the key them for Gould and Hancock
Measuring differences
What are the main assumptions of the social area?
All human behaviour occurs in a social context and is influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others.
Other people and the environment influence our behaviour and thought processes.
What are the main assumptions of the cognitive approach?
Internal mental processes are important in understanding behaviour.
Humans are like information processors; input, process, output. The output or behaviour is due to the mental processing which occurs.
Mental processing can be tested scientifically.
What are the main assumptions of the developmental area?
- People change and develop with age and experience: this development may be social, cognitive or biological
- Many of the biggest changes occur in childhood.
- Human development is an interaction of the influences of nature and nurture as both are important in shaping behaviour.
What are the main assumptions of the biological area?
- Behaviour can be largely explained in terms of biology – genes, the brain, hormones and nervous system have a direct influence on behaviour
- Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner (usually in a lab) measuring variables objectively, eg MRI scans.
- The biological approach focuses on how nature rather than nurture influences us.
What are the main assumptions of the individual differences area?
Individuals differ in their behaviour & personal qualities so no-one is average
Everyone is genetically unique and this uniqueness is displayed through their behaviour. So everyone behaves differently.
All behaviour can be measured.
What are the main assumptions of the psycho dynamic perspective?
Behaviour is influenced by the interaction (dynamism) of drives and forces within the personality (psyche).
Behaviour comes from the unconscious personality.
Personality is shaped by relationships, experience and conflict over time, particularly during childhood.
The mind is like an iceberg. It has conscious, subconscious and unconscious thought, all of which can influence our behaviour
What are the main assumptions of the behaviourist perspective?
Psychology is a science and the only way to be objective is to observe / measure behaviour (i.e. not infer anything about mental processes).
All behaviour is learned through Social Learning or classical / operant conditioning.
What are some strengths of the social area?
Helps us understand how behaviour can be influenced by other people and the situation you are in.
Supports the nurture side of the debate.
What are some weaknesses of the social area?
Reductionist-underestimates the power of individual differences.
Unethical- due to issues raised of deception or lack of withdrawal e.g. Milgram
What are some strengths of the cognitive area?
Offers lots of practical applications e.g Grant
It can overlook other behavioural factors
What are some strengths of the developmental area?
Uses longitudinal studies-scientific and shows development overtime.
Adds evidence to the nature/nurture debate
What are some weaknesses of the developmental area?
Rigid stages of development
Ps are often children
Deterministic
What are some strengths of the biological area?
Very scientific- experiments used are measurable, objective and can be repeated.
Deterministic- Increases the likelihood of being able to treat people with abnormal behaviors.
What are some weaknesses of the biological area?
Focuses too much on the ‘nature’ side of the debate.
It develops theories about disorders and generalises them to apply to everyone.
What are some strengths of the individual differences area?
Some methods used by this approach are objective and quantifiable
Useful applications to the real world e.g. Rosenhan
What are some weaknesses of the individual differences area?
Often sample is of very few numbers, so data can’t be generalised
Case studies= unethical due to issues with confidentiality, as ps may be easily recognised from the case
What are some strengths of the psychodynamic perspective?
Explores the innate drive that motivates our behaviour
Emphasises the influence of childhood relationships and experiences on later development.
What are some weaknesses of the psychodynamic perspective?
Deterministic,
Unscientific and un-falsifiable.
What are some strengths of the behaviourist perspective?
Scientific=cause and effect
Real-life application: operant conditioning=prisons etc
Classical conditioning=treating phobias.
What are some weaknesses of the behaviorist perspective?
Environmental determinism- behaviour is determined by past experiences that have been conditioned
Mechanist view of behaviour- Seen as passive and machine- like responders with little or no conscious insight into their behaviour.
In section C what are some psychological ways to deal with the topics mentioned in the article?
Modelling
Rewarding (positive reinforcement)
Punishment (negative reinforcement)
Educational films
Changing cognitions that will then change behvaiour
Classical conditioning, social leanirng theory
In section C what are some ways to evaluate your suggestions of ways to deal with issues in the article?
Individual differences,
Reductionist,
Ethics,
Lack of resources
What are some psychological issues that a psychologist can be used in section C?
This is anything that a psychologist may be intrested in studying… look at the key themes the studies are paired in or the aims of the study to get an idea such as:
Obediance
Authority
Influence of culture
effect of reward
effect of punishment etc.
What are all the debates you can use?
nature/nurture
Freewill/determinism
Reductionism/holism
Individual/situational
Uselfulness of research
Ethical considerations
Conducting socially sensitive nreseacrh
Psychology as a science
What is biological reductionism?
Refers to bio psychologists trying to reduce complex behaviours to a physical explanation in terms of genes, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structure, etc.
What is meant by environmental reductionism?
Focuses on stimulus-response relationships and that complex behaviours are the results of a series of S-R chains.
What is meant by experimental reductionism?
Where a complex behaviour is reduced to a single (isolated) variable for the purpose of testing.
How does Casey link to the reductionism side of the debate?
Reduces cognitive control/ability to delay gratification down to just activity in our right inferior gyrus
How does Chaney link to the reductionist side of the debate?
Only focuses on operant conditioning to explain medical compliance in children.
How was Piliavin’s study holistic?
Considers a range of different factors in the cost-benefit model of helping behaviour e.g. race of victim, ill vs drunk, effect of modelling, bystanders.
How was Freud’s study holistic?
The way in which the research was conducted, namely an in-depth case study collecting data over a period of approx 2 years in an unstructured way, was relatively holistic.
What is meant by soft determinism?
Humans can make choices but these are often limited by and therefore determined by certain factors out of their control.
What is meant by hard determinism?
Argues that humans have no free will and pre-determining factors beyond the individual cause us to behave the way we do.
What is meant by environmental determinism ?
Behaviour is a consequence of factors within our environment which we can’t control.
What is meant by biological determinism?
It sees that our behaviour is a consequence of factors within our biology which we can’t control.
.What does free will state?
That humans have the unique intellectual capacity to age independent decisions about how they behave in any situation. Thus humans are a) morally responsible for their own behaviour and b) self-determining.
How Casey link to the bio determinism side of the debate?
This is because her study suggests that people are born with brain differences that mean some people can resist temptation and other cannot.
How does Bandura link to the free will side of the debate?
There is evidence that the children selectively chose who they wanted to imitate. Such as boys imitate ale (25.4) when displaying aggressive behaviour then when they saw a female model (12.8)
What is the nature/nurture debate concerned with?
The extent to which particular aspects of behaviour are a product of either inherited (i.e. genetic) or acquired (i.e.learned) characteristics.
How does Casey link to the nature area?
Ability to delay or not is predetermined, hence nature. resisting temptation (or not) is a relatively stable characteristic which suggests nature. the assumption is that ability to delay is a consequence of predetermined activity in the IFG and VS.
How does Sperry link to the nature side of the debate?
argued that different functions are lactated within certain areas of the brain and that these cause behaviour. He suggests that the performance of tasks is due to the activation in different brain structures that we are born with.
How does Bandura link to the nurture debate?
The children witnessed the behaviour f the role model and imitated it, showing how their experience, and this nurture, shaped their aggressive behaviour.
How does Milgram link to the nurture debate?
The ps conflict often seen within this study is a result of two opposing, deeply ingrained rules that have been “nurtured” within our culture E.G obeying authority figures.
How does Freud link to the individual debate?
This study supports the individual view because Freud identifies individual factors to explain Hans’ behaviour. little Hans’ early childhood experiences, drives, fantasies, dreams combine to explain his unique development of a horse phobia.
How does Baron-Cohen link to the individual debate?
Identifies the specific individual factor that explains why HFA with autism perform badly on an adult TOM test
How does Bandura link to the situational debate?
Looks at how the behaviour of the role models around us have a situational effect on behaviour.
How does Casey link to the Individual and Situational debate?
I= Resisting temptation is a stable characteristic influence by lower activity in the inferior frontal gyrus.
S= Being able to teach those who couldn’t delay “cooling strategies” and/or cultural difference (e.g. children in Cameroon found it far easier to delay than children from Germany) demonstrate the possibility of situational influences.
What is the cost-benefit analysis in terms of ethics?
The idea that does the potential costs to the ps involved in the research outweigh the benefits to scientific understanding and wider society.
What studies could be seen as unethical?
Milgram, Bandura and Bocchiaro
What studies can be seen as ethical?
Grant, Casey and Bocchiaro
What is meant by the term socially sensitive research?
use to refer to psychological research/theories studies that has wider (usually negative) implications that affect people or groups in wider society-e.g. researchers and their institutions, families or people close to them, other groups in society. It may also refer to the sensitive nature of some of the cocnlsuions drawn by the research.
How is Baron-Cohen’s research Socially sensitive?
The findings can potentially have negative impact on the pop represented in this study and increase stigma. the discovery of this specific deficit in people with autism/AS might lead to even greater STIGMA in the form of exclusion of those with ASD from job, education, relationships etc.
How can Milgra’s research be seen as SS?
His explanation of obedience can be seen as environmentally deterministic. this potentially removes blame for destructive obedience (e.g. holocaust) and can cause HARM since the conclusions from this study are seen as controversial.
How is Gould/Yerkes study SS?
Gould highlights how Yerkes administered a number i of culturally biased tests to ensure the intelligence of 1.75 million army recruits which resulted in political consequences e.g. these “facts” were used to justify the immigration Restriction Act of 1924 which prevented up to 6 million Europeans from immigrating to the USA during WW2. These people will have ended up suffering at the hands of the Nazis as a cocquence
What are 2 studies that aren’t socially sensitive?
Grant and Chaney
When can psychology be considered a science?
-relies on well controlled lab experiments which enables cause and effect to be established.
-Uses standardised procedures that allow for replication. This means results can be verified.
When is psychology not considered scientific?
-Relies on methodological procedures that reduce the objectivity of data collection e.g. self-reports, subject to experimenter bias, not all extraneous variables are controlled, use of case studies etc.
-if theories of human behaviour are devised that can’t be falsified i.e proved to be wrong.
What research can be classed as scientific?
Loftus & palmer, Casey, Bandura
What research can be classed as not scientific?
Freud, Chaney, Bandura.
How does the nature/nurture link to the free will/determinism debate?
The deterministic stance can be linked to nature due to the clear focus on establishing cause and effect, particularly when investigating genetics. Nurture also tends to be deterministic as behaviourist research believed that factors in the environment can be isolated and understood to be directly causing behaviour. Therefore if our thinking and behaviour are entirely determined by our environment where is the role for free will?
How does the Nature/nurture debate link to the reductionism/holistic debate?
Nature see genetic and other bio factors as the explanation for thinking and behaviour, which adopts reductionist view (which attempts to break down behaviour into constituent parts and using single factors to account for given actions)
How does the nature/nurture debate link to the individual/situational debate?
Individual explanations of behaviour often assume that behaviour is innate and that the nurture side of the debate is true; By using a situational explanation researchers assume that the environment determines behaviour and therefore the nurture side of the debate is favoured.
How does the nature/nurture debate link to usefulness?
Assuming that behaviour is due to nature and breaking down behaviour into constituent parts, may enable researchers to develop precise practical a applications (e.g. drug therapies) which would enhance usefulness. However, in order to isolate specific variables to establish cause and effect, researchers often use lab experiments, which are unlike real-life environment and hence lack generalisability.
How does the nature/nurture debate link to ethics and SS research?
Much SS research is about the genetic basis of behaviour and therefore the nature side of this debate. What is more, assuming that behaviour is due to nurture, e.g. our upbringing and its contribution to the development of our aggressive behaviour may cause some ethical issue (e.g. blaming parents)
How does the nature/nurture debate link to psych as a science?
Psychologists more likely to use the scientific approach earn truing to establish a bio cause of behaviour. It is easier to isolate possible bio contributions than nurture. Too many confounding variables if looking at nurture.
How does the free/will determinism debate link to reductionism/holistic?
Determinism and reductionism align with similar assumptions about the predictability of behaviour and the scientific approach to explaining human behaviour; Reductionists look at one single cause of behaviour, meaning their explanations remove the influence of free will.
How does the freewill/determinism debate link to the individual/situational debate?
Determinism aligns more closely with situational explanations that focus on specific factors contributing to behaviour that can be predicted; it aims to establish cause and effect by isolating specific variables. However both sides of the ind/sit explanations assume that it is possible to predict behaviour based on specific variables and that people behave in systematic ways which removes the element of free will.
How does the freewill/determinism debate link to usefulness?
Determinism is very useful when trying to develop treatments; bio treatments may lack effectiveness in the long-term as behaviour return. Freewill is ore useful for therapeutic methods (sticking with treatment, making decisions about it etc) whereas determinism aids the development of very measurable treatments.
How does freewill/determinism link to ethics?
Determinism has the danger of causing psychological harm due to the implications research may have such as genetic causes of behaviour or poor upbringing.
How does the freewill/ determinism debate link to SS research
deterministic explanations can lead to SS research as this suggest that there is a clear cause for behaviour. this can lead to labelling and discrimination and remove personal responsibility. SS research tends to be deterministic and suggest clear cause and effect which can be uncomfortable.
How does the free will/determinism debate link to psych as a science?
Determinism aims to be scientific however it can never lead to perfect predictions due to the complexity of human behaviour and the difficulty isolating variables complexity. Determinism does utilise many scientific methods compared to freewill.
How does the reductionism/holistic debate link to the individual/situational debate?
Sit explanations of behaviour are often hard to quantify when explaining how groups, reserve of others and social triggers cause behaviour and therefore a more holistic approach is needed.
How does the reductionism/holistic debate link to usefulness?
As with determinism, reductionism can be very useful when trying to develop treatments because it reads down the behaviour into constituent parts, which enable researchers to develop precise practical application (e.g. drug therapies) which would enhance usefulness.
How does teh red/holistic debate link to SS research?
Often SS research focuses on specific such as sex, or race, as the cause of behaviour.
How does red/holistic debate link to psych as a science
Through scientific approach of hypothesis testing and variable control, researchers may seek to reduce explanations for behaviour to simple, single factors.
How does the individual/situational debate link to usefulness?
By understanding individual factors that determine behaviour researchers can develop real life applications such as therapy that focuses on changing factors such as faulty cognitions.
How does the ind/sit debate link to SS research?
The danger of attributing the cause of behaviour to individual factors is that it can ;dad to socially sensitive research as the implication of findings could suggest that a person’s race, age, gender or disability cause behaviour. this can cause social stigma and discrimination. Sit explanations can be seen as removing ind responsibility whilst individual plantations risk labelling.
How can the ind/sit debate link to psych as a science?
Areas of psych that use individual explanations of behaviour, such a s cog area, often use scientific methods that are high in control whereas sit explanations often find it harder to establish such high control.
How does Milgram link to the social area?
Social approach because the results show how pressure from another person could lead people to administer potentially fatal electric shocks to another individual and how they could be led to do this in spite of their evident discomfort. Included because of the importance of its subject matter and because of the way in which it inspired so much other research in the area of obedience. Furthermore, Milgram emphasised situational rather than individual explanations.
How does Bocchiaro link to the social area?
A study which sought to develop a new way to investigate obedience experimentally. Similar to Milgram in revealing high levels of obedience, but a good contrast in that this study was conducted in the Netherlands; as it also sought to investigate if there were any personality differences distinguishing those who were obedient, disobedient or prepared to
be whistle-blowers, it challenges a purely social approach to explaining behaviour and does consider individual explanations.
How does Piliavin link to the social area?
Social approach because it was seeking to investigate (in a real-life setting) the impact of other people on helping behaviour. It did this through counting of the number of people in the carriage at the time of the incidents (diffusion of responsibility was not seen) while another person was available to model helping behaviour in case this was necessary.
How does Levine link to the social area?
A more recent study investigating helping behaviour, this can be seen as building on the Piliavin study by investigating it in non-confined settings and also by doing so cross-culturally, in 23 different countries. Results found cultural differences in altruism, this offering culture as an explanation.
How does Moray link to the cognitive area?
Cognitive because of its subject matter – namely, attention. This specific study was included because it is one of the many studies from the 1950s which sought to investigate auditory attention; Moray’s study comprises a series of three experiments, one of which investigates the ‘cocktail party effect’ and what kind of information breaks the attentional barrier is discussed.
How does Simons and Chablis link to the cognitive area?
This can be seen as building on Moray’s work by investigating visual (as opposed to auditory) attention. This study also explains why we may not recall information that we see, but do not pay attention to.
How does Loftus and Palmer link to the cognitive area?
Cognitive because of its subject matter – namely, memory. This study shows the impact that post-event information can have on memory, even to the point (in the second of their two experiments) of producing false memories.
How does Grant links to the cognitive area?
A study which shows another way in which memory can be affected – in this case, by whether information is recalled in a similar context to that in which it was first encountered. In contrast to Loftus and Palmer’s study, this research explains how memory can be enhanced, rather than distorted.
How does Bandura link to the developmental area?
Developmental because of the way in which it shows how children’s behaviour can be influenced by the behaviour of adult role models (who they imitate). This lab study can be compared to Chaney et al’s field study.
How does Chaney link to the developmental area?
Developmental because it is illustrating another way in which children’s behaviour can be influenced by external factors – in this case, the presence of positive and negative reinforcers.
How does Kohlberg link to the Developmental area?
Developmental because it is investigating how, as people get older, the nature of their moral thinking can be seen to evolve, potentially passing through six distinct stages of moral development. It is suggesting that this occurs in line with cognitive development and that it occurs irrespective of the culture a person is growing up in.
How does Lee link to the developmental area?
A cross-cultural study which challenges Kohlberg’s suggestion that the development of moral thinking is unaffected by the culture a child grows up in. Lee et al show the impact of culture through Chinese and Canadian children’s evaluations of lying and truth-telling. It also investigates the impact that a child’s age has on their evaluations of lying and truth-telling, and its use of a cross-sectional approach contrasts nicely with Kohlberg’s longitudinal approach.
How does Sperry link to the bio area?
Biological because it is showing, through split-brain patients, the way in which different abilities are localized within the two hemispheres of the brain and distinct areas control specific behaviours. Sperry’s study has a small sample in comparison to the Casey et al study.
How does Casey link to the bio area?
Biological because it involves trying to see whether there is a neural basis to self-regulation. This is done through fMRI scans of people who, forty years previously, had taken part in Mischel’s delay-of-gratification (marshmallow) test.
How does Balkemore and Cooper link to the bio area?
An early example of research into brain plasticity, in which evidence is
put forward of the impact that the visual environment has on cats’ brains (specifically their visual neurons). Included as a biological study because
of its focus on neurons, and also because it opens up the debate about whether biology affects behaviour or whether behaviour might even affect biology.
How does Maguire link to the Bio area?
A modern counterpart to Blakemore and Cooper’s study which again illustrates brain plasticity. This time, though, it illustrates it amongst adult humans (specifically London taxi drivers) in a different part of the brain (the hippocampi). It also uses different techniques (MRI scans) to investigate it. The study also explains brain plasticity, in that the organisation of the brain is altered by experiences.
How does Freud link to the Ind Diff area?
individual differences because of its focus on trying to explain a way in which people may differ – namely, by having phobias. It does this through the case study of a single boy.
How does Baron-Cohen link to the Ind diff area?
Again, individual differences because of its focus on trying to understand a way in which people differ – in this case, through being diagnosed as being on the autistic spectrum. A good contrast to Freud because of the different research method used (a quasi experiment) and because of the number and ages of the participants as well as the different disorder.
How does Gould link to the ind diff area?
Individual differences because of its focus on an attempt to develop a test to measure a way in which people differ – namely, in their levels of intelligence. Included for many reasons, but particularly because it shows how difficult it is to avoid cultural bias in supposedly objective measures.
How does Hancock link to the ind diff area?
Individual differences because, again, of its focus on trying to measure differences – in this case, text analysis tools are used to examine the mcrime narratives of 14 psychopathic and 38 non-psychopathic homicide offenders and the findings demonstrate how the two groups differ
How does Bandura link to the behaviourist area?
Behaviourist because of the way it provides empirical support for social learning theory. This is shown through children imitating the aggressive behaviour of the role models that they observe.
How does Chaney link to the behaviourist area?
Behaviourist because of the way it provides empirical support for operant conditioning (both positive and negative reinforcement). Results found increased adherence, due to the positive reinforcement provided by the funhaler.
How does Freud link to the psychodynamic area?
Psychodynamic because of the way in which Freud’s theory of psychosexual development (especially the Oedipus complex) is drawn upon to explain little Hans’ phobias and fantasies.
How does Kohlberg link to the psychodynamic area?
Kohlberg’s study is not psychodynamic, but within his paper he explicitly positions his own work against Freudian views of the origins of virtue (as “…superego-identification with parents generated by a proper balance
of love and authority in family relations”). Psychodynamic theories about moral development could be drawn out further in the course of exploring Kohlberg’s work.
How does Hancock link to the psychodynamic area?
Similarly, Hancock et al’s study is not in itself psychodynamic, but it makes repeated references to concepts that draw upon psychodynamic ideas throughout the course of the paper – namely, ego development, use
of a Rorschach test, psychological ‘distancing’, basic and thrill-seeking drives,and language use being in all likelihood beyond conscious control. Again, these ideas could be drawn out and explicitly related to the psychodynamic perspective.
How did Bocchiaro and Milgram add to our understanding of individual diversity?
This area of research led to an understanding of terrible historical events such as the holocaust and how individuals may be led to behave in ways they would never predict they would. This has led
to the idea that all individuals
are susceptible; if they are
asked by a figure in authority, to gradually carry out terrible acts they would previously have said were inconceivable. Bocchiaro
et al found similar results and extended the evidence to include female behaviour along with male behaviour.
How did Milgram and Bocchiaro add to our understanding of social diversity?
Both pieces of research highlight the need for society to question authority further as obedience levels in both studies were seen to be high.
The contemporary study, Bocchiaro et al, uses students so may be limited in its ability to explain how different groups in society may behave but does look at a different part of society to Milgram who studied volunteers with a range of occupations.
How did Milgram and Bocchiaro add to our understanding of cultural diversity?
Bocchiaro furthered Milgram’s ethnocentric research and showed that obedience is high cross-culturally as well as the importance
of considering individual explanations alongside situational ones.
The contemporary study also showed
that obedience was similar over time and research in this area suggests that people are inherently obedient.
How does Piliavin and Levine add to our understanding of individual diversity?
This area of research has found that individual’s responses to people in need do vary and factors such as the judgements of an individual in need and cultural factors do have an effect on helping behaviour.
How does Piliavin and Levine add to our understanding of social diversity?
The classic study suggests individuals use a cost-benefit analysis to decide whether
to help those in need; as this includes perceptions of costs and stereotypes of those in need society can improve helping behaviour by breaking down stereotypes. As an example in Piliavin’s research people were more likely to help someone of the same race and this issue needs to be tackled however race was not focused on by Levine et al.
The contemporary study found a shift in the helping behaviour of females and contrasted Piliavin’s research that showed helpers were predominantly males.
How does Piliavin and Levine add to our understanding of cultural diversity?
Levine carried out research cross-culturally that suggests that helping behaviour and altruism are affected by more than just situational explanations with countries that practice simpatia found more likely to help.
This furthers the research by Piliavin et al and shows that cultural practices can be embedded to improve helping behaviour.
How does L&P and Grant add to our understanding of individual diversity?
Our understanding of how individuals behave due to the increasingly detailed models of behaviour that explain specific elements of memory processing and how memory can be improved or distorted. As an example Grant et al found that, further to Loftus and Palmer’s conclusion that post-event information can affect memory recall, the ability to recall information is also affected by cues and the setting in which material has been processed in the first place.
How does L&P and Grant add to our understanding of social diversity?
The accuracy of memory is a concern for society as the criminal justice system often relies on testimony of people and the accuracy of memory processing has been questioned through this pair of core studies. This has led to changes to the criminal justice system such as those outlined in the Devlin report.
The contemporary study doesn’t further our understanding of social diversity as both pieces of research use university students from America and does not specify further sectors of society.
How does L&P and Grant add to our understanding of cultural diversity?
This pair of core studies can explain cultural differences by investigating
the factors that may influence memory recall. Although these studies are both ethnocentric they suggest a nomothetic explanation of behaviour that can be applied to different cultures where the culturally specific factors can be applied. Further research would need to be carried out in other cultures to establish if these models are nomothetic
How does Moray and Simons&Chabris add to our understanding of individual diversity?
The contemporary study does allow us to see how individuals process stimulus in their environment differently and this results in individual differences in the ability to pay attention to background stimuli. This extends the classic research into auditory information to visual information also.
How does Moray and S&C add to our understanding of social diversity?
Both pieces of research utilise students for their sample and therefore may not explain groups in society who do not share characteristics that are similar to these.
How does moray and S&C add to our understanding of cultural diversity?
The contemporary study studied participants from Harvard university which allowed research to be applied to American culture as well as English culture that was previously studied by Moray.
How does Bandura and Chaney add to our understanding of individual diversity?
Bandura showed that males and females imitate behaviour differently and are affected more by same sex role models. Chaney et al furthered the understanding of how males and females learn behaviours but did not differentiate between them as Bandura did.
How does Bandura and Chaney add to our understanding of social diversity?
The classic study Bandura et al explained the causes of behaviour and Chaney et al furthered an understanding of how behaviourist theories can be used to improve behaviour.
How does Bandura and Chaney add to our understanding of Cultural diversity?
Chaney et al carried out their research with Australian children which furthers Bandura’s research in America and suggests that all children, regardless of culture, are able to learn and acquire behaviour using the principle of reinforcement.
How does Kohlberg and Lee add to our understanding of individual diversity?
Lee et al was able to study females and males and explain how both genders develop morally, based
on cultural factors. This was an improvement to the classic study as Kohlberg only studied males.
How does kohlberg and lee add to our understanding of cultural diversity?
Lee et al reinforce Kohlberg’s idea that morality is developed over time as they found both Canadian and Chinese children shifted their attitudes to truth- telling as they got older.
Lee et al did show that moral development is not purely down to age and progression through moral stages but also due to cultural factors that affect a person’s understanding of whether lies should be told.
How does Sperry and Casey add to our understanding of individual diversity?
Sperry already suggested that individual differences in the brain lead to observed differences in behaviour and Casey et al furthered this understanding by focusing
on more specific regions of the brain that contribute to individual differences. They found that the ventral striatum is associated with a lack of self-control.
How does Sperry and Casey add to our understanding of cultural diversity?
The contemporary study focuses on American participants like the class study did and therefore is limited in its ability to explain cultural differences.
How does B&C and Maguire add to our understanding of individual diversity?
Maguire et al’s research was able
to show that brain plasticity does not only apply to animals such as cats but to humans as well. Maguire et al showed that excessive use of navigation skills led the brain to adjust and for grey matter in the posterior hippocampi to develop to accommodate this demand.
How does B&C and Maguire add to our understanding to our understanding of social diversity?
The contemporary study doesn’t tell us more about social diversity but it does show great improvements in the ability to measure human brain activity and allow for future research to now explore this.
How does Freud and BC add to our understanding of individual diversity?
Both studies develop an understanding of individual differences and why behaviour may differ among people. Baron-Cohen et al were able to analyse specific characteristics that lead to changes in behaviour over a more sustained period of time whereas Freud
was explaining the reason some individuals experienced phobias for a relatively shorter period of time.
How does Freud and BC add to our understanding of social diversity?
The contemporary study does not give further information about social diversity, nor does Freud’s.
How does Freud and BC add to our understanding of cultural diversity?
The contemporary study was carried out in the UK and suggests that Aspergers can be explained in the same way across other cultures however, like Freud, this research only focused on one culture.
How does Gould and Hancock add to our understanding about individual diversity?
Hancock et al was able to demonstrate that it is possible to measure behaviour to establish factors that cause individual differences fairly. This contemporary study allowed more specific behaviours to be measured to understand abnormal behaviour rather than Gould’s focus on typical intelligence.
How does Gould and Hancock add to our understanding about social diversity?
Hancock et al focused on 52 men who were in prison for murder and was therefore not necessarily able to tell us more about social diversity as a whole but about a particular group of individuals who are likely, given research into offending, to have similar backgrounds. This did enable Hancock et al to explain
an important issue in society and potentially reduce future offending.
How does Gould and Hancock add to our understanding of cultural diversity?
The contemporary study focused on prisoners in Canada and therefore does not offer further insight into cultural diversity overall, it does extend our understanding from America in the classic study but could be improved by considering the behaviour of individuals in further cultures.
What is a similarity between Loftus and Palmer and Grant?
Both used students=unrepresentative
Both used lab experiments
Both used an independent measures design
What is a similarity between Moray and Simons and Chabris?
Both used IMD, both gathered quant data, both used undergraduate students, both lab
What is a difference between Moray and S&C?
Moray used RMD and IMD where’s S&C only used IMD.
What is a similarity between Milgram and Bocchiaro?
Both studies experimental (with 1 condition), both collected quantitative and qual data, both had a standardise procedure
What is a difference between Milgram and Bocchiaro?
Milgram all male, Bocchiaro male and female
Bocchiaro took ps personalities into account
What is a similarity in Piliavin and Levine?
Both field experiments, Both used IMD, Very large samples,quantitative data collected
What is a difference between Piliavin and Levine
Levine took place in 23 countries but Piliavin only 1, Piliavin collected some qual data of the verbal comments
What is a similarity between Freud and BC?
Both had practical applications, Freud=training psychotherapists, BC=helping those with HF autism
What is a difference between Freud and Baron-Cohen?
Research method:F=case study, BC=quasi experiment
Samples, Freud 1 p
what is a similarity between Gould and Hancock?
Both used quantitative data
All male
What is a difference between Gould and Hancock?
Gould=psychometric testing Hancock=self report
Sample, Gould=1.76m, Hancock=52
What is a similarity between Bandura and Chaney?
Both studies used young children of a similar age, quantitative data.
What is a difference between Bandura and Chaney?
Bandura=lab, Chaney=field
Bandura observed, Chaney=self report
What is a similarity between Kohlberg and Lee?
Both used fairly large samples
What is a difference between kohlberg and Lee?
K=longitudinal, L= cross-cultural method
What is a similarity between Sperry and Casey?
Both conducted in a lab, both produced quantitative data.
What is a difference between Sperry and Casey?
Sperry=small sample, Casey large sample
What is a similarity between B&C and Maguire?
Both used IMD and collected quantitative data.
What is a difference between Blakmore and Cooper and Maguire
BC-cats M-taxi drivers
BC-Lab experiment M-Quasi experiment
In the question about changes to our understanding of the key theme what is meant by confirms?
When the contemporary study finds THE SAME as the classic study, we say it CONFIRMS what we know
In the question changes to our understanding what is meant by Adds to?
When the contemporary study finds something NEW/ADDITIONAL ABOUT THE KT from the classic study, we say it adds to what we know.
E.g Grant adds to our understanding because he looks at a different part of memory
what is meant in the question changes to our understanding when it says changes?
When a contemporary study investigates the same thing and finds A CONTRADICTORY RESULT to the classic study, we say it changes what we know.
What is the general structure for the question:To what extent does the contemporary study change our understanding of the key theme?
1: Make a clear statement about whether contemporary study changes OR adds to OR confirms/doesn’t change our understanding of the key theme AND TO WHAT EXTENT
2: Then directly compare this to what the contemp study found
3: add 1 or 2 conclusions from contemp study and show how these are sim/diff, therefore changing/not changing our understanding of the key theme- when appropriate, refer to EXTENT OF CHANGS (large/small/no extent)
What is meant by individual diversity?
Consider factors such as the personalities of the ps used, their age, sex, mental health status
What is meant by social diversity?
Consider factors such as teh Ps’ occupations in both studies, if they are students, their social class.
What is meant by cultural diversity?
Consider factors such as Ps ethnic group in both studies, their religions, collectivist/individualist.
What is the structure for the question: changes to our understanding of individual, social and cultural diversity by contemporary study.
1)Make a clear statement about whether contemp study changes/ adds to/confirms/ doesn’t change our understanding of diversity in relation to individual factors, social factors and/or cultural factors.
2) Make a brief statement about what the classic (older) study found and directly compare this to the contemp study.
3) Add 1 or 2 other conclusions from contemp study and show how this is sim/diff, therefore not changing/ changing our understanding of diversity.
What is the structure for the strengths and weaknesses of an area/perspective?
(Aim to give 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses)
-state a strength/weakness
-elaborate/explain it- clearly explain WHY it’s a strength/weakness
-apply it to a relevant core study for the area/perspective
-Link this to why this is a strength in this specific core study.
What is the structure for the Qs about debates?
(Aim to make 3 PEEL points)
-Point about the debate e.g. which side is supported or a strength of one side of teh debate
-Elaborate/explain it e.g. define any key terms
- example fo a relevant core study
-Link by stating why this reference to the CS supports your point in relation to the debate.
What is a strength of the reductionism debate?
More scientific
What is a weakness of the reductionism debate?
Over-simplifies complex phenomena
What is a strength of the holistic debate?
Gives a complete picture of human experience.
What is a weakness of the holistic debate?
Too subjective and open to interpretation
What is a strength of free will?
Individual responsibility
Suggests behaviour is free
Emphasise on the individual
What is a weakness of free will
Unscientific- behaviour can’t be predicted or objectively measured.
What is a strength of the determinism debate?
Emphasis on cause and effect
What is a weakness of the determinism debate?
Ignores free will over behaviour
Behaviour is too complex and variable
Doesn’t blame people for their behaviour
What is a strength of the nature debate?
Objective methods used
Can show cause and effect
What is a weakness of the nature debate?
No control over own behaviour
Reductionist
What is a strength of the nurture side of the debate?
allows for intervention programmes-Bandura etc
Wide range of research methods used
What is a weakness of the nurture side of the debate?
Reductionist
Harder to establish cause and effect
What is a strength of the individual debate?
Free will-gives people the responsibility to change the self
Holistic- Takes into account individual differences
What is a weakness of the individual debate?
Difficulties generalising
Reductionist
What is a strength of the situational debate?
Suggests that behaviour is predictable so cause and effect can be found
Behaviour can be changes by improving one’s environment
What is a weakness of the situational debate?
Reductionist
Tends to rely on observations
What is a strength of uselfulness of research?
Develops therapies, intervention, preventative action or treatments
Provokes further research in the field
Progresses understanding beyound previous findings
Is generalisable to a wide population
Is valid so the results are accurate.
What is the cost benefit analysis for ethics?
Psychologists must ‘weigh up’ the benefits to society that may be Gaines by testing new theories and the costs to participants within the research
What are practical applications of the social area?
Increasing rates of obedience in the classroom
What are some practical applications of the cognitive area?
Enhancing the quality of eyewitness accounts
What is a practical application of the developmental area?
Social services ensuring children’s home life is not traumatic
What are practical applications of the biological debate?
Drug therapy for mental health disorders
What is an application of the individual difference area?
Development of personality tests, which can be used for recruitment purposes.
What are some practical applications of the behaviourism perspective?
Social learning theory- teaching children how to behave appropriately in the classroom environment
What are some practical applications of the psychodynamic perspective?
Psychoanalysis for people with phobias e.g spider… dream analysis, free association
What is the structure for the 4 mark application question?
-What are you suggesting (1 mark)
-In what SITUATION (1 mark)
-How will it work (1 mark)
-An additional detail about how it will work (1 mark)
What is the structure for a similarities and difference question?
PEEE- Point, Elaborate, Example 1, Example 2
What is the structure for links to the key theme?
-Provide a summary of the study (aim, sample, method)
-Provide one-two findings (depending on marks)
-Continual references to the name of the key theme (mentioned in the question)
What is the structure for Links to area?
A-Assumption of the area
L-Link to the core study
E-Example from the core study
What is the structure for the strengths and weaknesses of areas and perspectives?
PEEL-Point, Elaborate, Example, Link back
What is the comparison of areas/perspectives?
PEEE-Point, Elaborate, Example from area/perspective 1, Example from area/perspective 2
What is the structure for linking to debates?
-Define debate
-Name study/area.perspective that supports debate
-provide relevant evidence from study/ area/ perspective to support debate
What is the structure for the qs: strengths and weaknesses of area/perspective (15 marks)and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of X debate (15 marks)
1.POINT- state strenth/weakness
2.ELABORATE on strength/weakness i.e. define
3.EVIDENCE from a specific core study
4.LINK-This is a strength because…
4 point sin total, 2 positive and 2 negative, at least 2 core studies need to be discussed
What is the structure for: Discuss the ______/_____ debate in psychology. Use core studies to support your answer
E.g Discuss the reductionism/holistic debate in psychology. Use core studies to support your answer.
- Define debate (both sides) with examples (not from core studies)
2.Outline how one core study demonstrates one side of that debate. - Outline a strength of taking that side of that debate.
- Outline how one core study demonstrates the other side of that debate.
- Outline a weakness of taking that side of that debate.
repeat steps steps 2-5 with the other side of the debate.
What is the structure for the question: To what extent can psychology be viewed as X side of one of the debates i.e nature (15 marks)
PEC (15 marks)
1.POINT- Make a detailed point
2.EVIDENCE from a core study to prove your point
3. COMMENT- therefore this suggest that… (use the wording of the question)
4 point sin total (both sides of debate covered) and at least 2 core studies need to be discussed ( aim for more if possible)
What is the structure for the question: Discuss the extent to which X debate explanations of behaviour are useful OR discuss the strengths and weakness of X debate
I.e. combination of two debates/issues
(15 marks)
PEEL x3
1. POINT-Identify your point
2. ELABORATE on your point i.e. define
3. EVIDENCE from a specific core study
4.LINK-Therefore this is useful because…/this is a strength because/ this is a weakness because
3 points in total (mix of positive and negative one’s)
How does Milgram and Bocchiaro link to the key theme: Responses to people in authority?
Milgram used a lab procedure to test destructive obedience, showing that people are surprisingly likely to obey orders to carry out immoral acts. Bocchiaro used a similar lab procedure to show that people were also surprisingly likely to obey instructions to encourage people to take part in an unethical experiment. they also found that people rarely took the opportunity to blow the whistle on the experimenter.
