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BIOL 235 > Chr. 25 - Metabolism and Nutrition > Flashcards

Chr. 25 - Metabolism and Nutrition Flashcards

1
Q

[25.1] What is metabolism?

A

The sum of all the chemical reactions occurring in the body.

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2
Q

[25.1] What are the two types of metabolism?

A

Catabolism and anabolism.

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3
Q

[25.1] What is catabolism?

A

Chemical reactions breaking down complex organic molecules into simpler molecules. Typically exergonic.

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4
Q

[25.1] What is anabolism?

A

Chemical reactions building more complex molecules using simpler ones. Typically energonic.

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5
Q

[25.1] What is adenosine triphosphate?

A

A molecule storing energy and most often involved in energy exchanges within living cells.

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6
Q

[25.1] Describe the composition of adenosine triphosphate.

A

An adenine molecule with a ribose sugar and three phosphate groups bonded to it.

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7
Q

[25.1] How is adenosine triphosphate commonly used in the body?

A

It is formed to store energy through linkage of the third phosphate group. It is broken down to access energy.

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8
Q

[25.1] What percentage of energy released in catabolism is used for cellular function?

A

40%. The rest is converted to heat.

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9
Q

[25.2] What are oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions?

A

Coupled reactions of oxidation and reduction; one substance must be reduced when another is oxidized.

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10
Q

[25.2] What are oxidation reactions?

A

The removal of electrons from an atom or molecule, decreasing the potential energy. Typically exergonic.

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11
Q

[25.2] What are dehydrogenation reactions?

A

An oxidation reaction resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom.

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12
Q

[25.2] What are reduction reactions?

A

The addition of electrons to a molecule, increasing the potential energy of the molecule.

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13
Q

[25.2] What is phosphorylation?

A

The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule.

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14
Q

[25.2] List the mechanisms of ATP generation.

A
  1. Substrate-level phosphorylation
  2. Oxidative phosphorylation
  3. Photophosphorylation
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15
Q

[25.2] Describe substrate-level phosphorylation.

A

A process generating ATP by transferring a high-energy phosphate group from a substrate directly to ATP. Occurs in cytosol.

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16
Q

[25.2] Describe oxidative phosphorylation.

A

A process generating ATP by removing electrons from organic compounds and passing it through the electron transport chain onto oxygen. Occurs in mitochondrial membrane.

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17
Q

[25.2] Describe photophosphorylation.

A

A process generating ATP only occurring in chlorophyll containing plant cells.

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18
Q

[25.3] List the uses of glucose by body cells.

A
  1. ATP production
  2. Amino acid synthesis
  3. Glycogen synthesis
  4. Triglyceride synthesis
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19
Q

[25.3] What is glycogenesis?

A

The process of converting glucose monomers into glycogen, a polysaccharide.

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20
Q

[25.3] What is lipogenesis?

A

The synthesis of triglycerides.

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21
Q

[25.3] Describe glucose movement into cells.

A

Glucose moves into cells using GluT transport molecules. Insulin increases ability of GluT4 into the membranes of cells, increasing facilitated diffusion of glucose into cells.

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22
Q

[25.3] What is cellular respiration?

A

The process of oxidating glucose to produce ATP.

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23
Q

[25.3] List the steps of cellular respiration.

A
  1. Glycolysis
  2. Formation of acetyl coenzyme A
  3. Krebs Cycle
  4. Electron transport chain
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24
Q

[25.3] What is an anaerobic reaction?

A

A reaction that does not require oxygen in order to occur.

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25
Q

[25.3] What is an aerobic reaction?

A

A reaction that requires oxygen to occur.

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26
Q

[25.3] Describe glycolysis and state whether it is aerobic or anaerobic.

A

A chemical reaction that splits a 6-carbon molecule of glucose into two 3-carbon molecules of pyruvic acid. Can be either aerobic or anaerobic.

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27
Q

[25.3] What occurs to pyruvic acid during anaerobic glycolysis?

A

Pyruvic acid is reduced with two hydrogen atoms to form lactic acid. This produced two NAD+ and allows anaerobic glycolysis to repeat.

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28
Q

[25.3] What occurs to pyruvic acid during aerobic glycolysis?

A

Pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl coenzyme A, linking glycolysis to the Krebs cycle.

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29
Q

[25.3] How is pyruvic acid converted to acetyl coenzyme A?

A

Coenzyme A removes a carbon from pyruvic acid, generating an acetyl group. The acetyl group then binds to the enzyme, forming acetyl coenzyme A.

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30
Q

[25.3] What is decarboxylation?

A

When a substance removed one carbon and two oxygens from a substance, forming carbon dioxide.

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31
Q

[25.3] What is another name for the Krebs cycle?

A

The citric acid cycle.

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32
Q

[25.3] What is the Krebs cycle?

A

A process occurring in the matrix of mitochondria involving the oxidation of pyruvic acid and reducing of coenzymes involved in the process.

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33
Q

[25.3] List the coenzymes involved in the Krebs cycle and their reduced form.

A
  1. (NAD)+, NADH + (H)+
  2. FAD, FAD(H2)
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34
Q

[25.3] What is the electron transport chain?

A

A series of electron carriers within the inner mitochondrial membrane where each carrier is reduced and then oxidized, resulting in a series of exergonic reactions used to generate ATP.

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35
Q

[25.3] What is chemiosmosis?

A

The series of reactions within the electron transport chain, named for the characteristic of pumping hydrogen ions during generation of ATP.

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36
Q

[25.3] List the types of molecules involved in the electron transport chain.

A
  1. Flavin mononucleotide
  2. Cytochromes
  3. Iron-sulfur centers
  4. Copper atoms
  5. Coenzyme Q
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37
Q

[25.3] What is flavin mononucleotide?

A

A flavoprotein derived from riboflavin.

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38
Q

[25.3] What are cytochromes?

A

Proteins with a heme group that feature an oxidize and reduced form.

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39
Q

[25.3] List the cytochromes involved in the electron transport chain.

A
  1. Cyt b
  2. Cyt c1
  3. Cyt c
  4. Cyt a
  5. Cyt a3
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40
Q

[25.3] What are iron-sulfur centers?

A

Proteins containing two or four irons bound to sulfur forming an electron transfer center.

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41
Q

[25.3] What is coenzyme Q?

A

A non-protein, low molecular weight carrier mobile in the lipid bilayer.

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42
Q

[25.3] How many ATP molecules are produced from glucose in oxidative phosphorylation?

A

23 - 25, depending if malate shuttles or glycerol phosphate shuttles are utilized.

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43
Q

[25.3] What are malate shuttles?

A

Transfer shuttles transporting electrons across the mitochondrian membrane in place of NADH+(H)+. Found in liver, kidney, and heart cells, produce 2.5 ATP.

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44
Q

[25.3] What are glycerol phosphate shuttles?

A

Transfer shuttles transporting electrons across the mitochondria membrane in place of NADH+(H)+. Found in skeletal muscle fibers and neurons, produce 1.5 ATP.

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45
Q

[25.3] How much ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation?

A

4; two from glycolysis and two from Krebs cycle.

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46
Q

[25.3] What are the roles of glucose in anabolism?

A

Synthesis of glycogen and synthesis of glucose from protein and lipid breakdown.

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47
Q

[25.3] What is glycogenesis?

A

Formation of glycogen from many molecules of glucose when glucose is not being used.

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48
Q

[25.3] What is glycogenolysis?

A

The breakdown of glycogen into glucose.

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49
Q

[25.3] Describe the process of glycogenolysis in the liver.

A

Glucose is split from glycogen via phosphorylation, resulting in glucose-1-phosphate. It is then converted to glucose-6-phosphate, and then glucose. Glucose then leaves hepatocytes into the blood stream.

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50
Q

[25.3] Describe the process of glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle.

A

Glucose is split from glycogen via phosphorylation resulting in glucose-1-phosphate. It then enters glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.

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51
Q

[25.3] What is gluconeogensis?

A

The formation of glucose by the liver cells using glycerol from triglycerides, lactic acid, and amino acids.

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52
Q

[25.3] What stimulates gluconeogenesis?

A

Cortisol, glucagon, T3, and T4.

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53
Q

[25.4] What are lipoproteins?

A

Molecules formed by lipids and proteins. Outer hydrophilic sphere of proteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol and inner hydrophobic sphere of triglycerides.

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54
Q

[25.4] What are apoproteins?

A

Transport proteins forming the outer layer of lipoproteins.

55
Q

[25.4] List the classifications of apoproteins.

A
  1. Chylomicrons
  2. Very low density lipoproteins
  3. Low density lipoproteins
  4. High density lipoproteins
56
Q

[25.4] What are chylomicrons?

A

Lipoproteins transporting dietary lipids to adipose tissue. Arise in mucosal epithelium of small intestine.

57
Q

[25.4] What are very low density lipoproteins?

A

Lipoproteins transporting endogenous triglycerides sourced from hepatocytes.

58
Q

[25.4] How do chylomicrons and very low density lipoproteins detach their lipids?

A

Apoprotein c2 activates endothelial lipoprotein lipase, severing the fatty acid/triglyceride from the lipoprotein.

59
Q

[25.4] What are low-density lipoproteins?

A

Lipoproteins that transport cholesterol

60
Q

[25.4] How does low density lipoprotein enter cells?

A

Utilizing apoprotein B100 to enter cells through the plasma membrane.

61
Q

[25.4] How does low density lipoprotein offload cholesterol?

A

LDL is broken down within cells, releasing cholesterol.

62
Q

[25.4] What are high density lipoproteins?

A

Lipoproteins removing excess cholesterol from body cells and transporting to the liver for elimination.

63
Q

[25.4] What are the two sources of cholesterol in the body?

A

Dietary cholesterol and endogenous cholesterol.

64
Q

[25.4] How are lipids utilized in the body?

A
  1. To produce ATP
  2. Stored in adipose tissue
  3. Used as structural molecules
  4. Synthesize other essential substances.
65
Q

[25.4] What are two essential fatty acids?

A

Linoleic acid and linolenic acid.

66
Q

[25.4] What is the major function of adipose tissue?

A

To remove triglycerides from chylomicrons and VLDLs, storing them.

67
Q

[25.4] Why is triglyceride storage widely used by the body?

A

Stored more readily than glycogen, triglycerides do not exert osmotic pressure, insulate and protects the body.

68
Q

[25.4] What are lipases?

A

Enzymes catalyzing lipolysis.

69
Q

[25.4] What is beta oxidation?

A

A series of reactions in fatty acid catabolism

70
Q

[25.4] What occurs in beta oxidation?

A

Enzymes remove fragments of a fatty acid forming acetyl. These bind with coenzyme A and initiate the Krebs cycle.

71
Q

[25.4] What is acetoacetic acid?

A

A molecule formed by two acetyl coenzyme A molecules removing the CoA portion. This allows the molecule to diffuse through plasma membranes.

72
Q

[25.4] What is ketogenesis?

A

The formation of ketone bodies.

73
Q

[25.4] What are the ketone bodies formed from acetoacetic acid?

A
  1. beta-hydroxybutyric acid
  2. Acetone
  3. Acetoacetic acid.
74
Q

[25.5] How are proteins utilized in the body?

A
  1. As enzymes
  2. Transportation
  3. Antibodies
  4. Hormones
  5. Contractile fibers
  6. Structural elements.
75
Q

[25.5] What is demination?

A

Removal of an amino group from an amino acid allowing for amino groups to be utilized in the Krebs cycle. Produces ammonia which is converted to urea.

76
Q

[25.5] What are essential amino acids?

A

Amino acids not produced by the body in adequate amounts.

77
Q

[25.5] What are nonessential amino acids?

A

Amino acids synthesized by body cells in adequate amounts.

78
Q

[25.5] What is transamination?

A

The transfer of an amino group from amino acid to pyruvic acid

79
Q

[25.6] What are the three key molecules of metabolic crossroads?

A
  1. Glucose-6-phosphate
  2. Pyruvic acid
  3. Acetyl coenzyme A
80
Q

[25.6] List the main fates of glucose-6-phosphate

A
  1. Synthesis of glycogen
  2. Release of glucose into the bloodstream
  3. Synthesis of nucleic acids
  4. Glycolysis
81
Q

[25.6] List the roles of pyruvic acid.

A
  1. Production of lactic acid
  2. Production of alanine
  3. Gluconeogenesis.
82
Q

[25.6] List the roles of acetyl coenzyme A.

A
  1. Initiate Krebs cycle and electron transport chain
  2. Synthesis of lipids.
83
Q

[25.7] What is the absorptive state?

A

Duration after a meal where ingested nutrients enter the bloodstream and glucose is available. Requires 4 hours.

84
Q

[25.7] What is the postabsorptive state?

A

Absorption of nutrients is complete and energy needs are met with body stores.

85
Q

[25.7] What are absorptive state reactions?

A

Reactions during the absorptive state that satisfy the body’s energy needs or synthesize proteins.

86
Q

[25.7] List the reactions of the absorptive state satisfying energy needs or involved in synthesis of proteins.

A
  1. Catabolism of glucose
  2. Catabolism of amino acids
  3. Protein synthesis
  4. Catabolism of dietary lipids
87
Q

[25.7] List reactions of the absorptive state that occur with excess nutrients.

A
  1. Glycogenesis
  2. Lipogenesis
  3. Transport of triglycerides from the liver to adipose tissue.
88
Q

[25.7] Describe regulation of metabolism during absorptive state.

A

Eating stimulates release of glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide, releasing insulin. Insulin increases anabolic enzyme activity and reduces catabolic enzyme activity.

89
Q

[25.7] What is the main function of the postabsorptive state?

A

To maintain normal blood glucose of 3.9-6.1 mmol/L without a supply of glucose from a meal.

90
Q

[25.7] List the reactions of the postabsorptive state that produce glucose.

A
  1. Glycogenolysis in the liver
  2. Glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle
  3. Lipolysis
  4. Protein catabolism
  5. Gluconeogenesis
91
Q

[25.7] What is glucose sparing?

A

The process where body cells switch to fuels other than glucose as the main source of energy, rationing it for the brain and RBCs.

92
Q

[25.7] List the reaction that produce ATP without glucose.

A
  1. Catabolism of fatty acids
  2. Catabolism of lactic acid
  3. Catabolism of amino acids
  4. Catabolism of ketone bodies.
93
Q

[25.7] How is metabolism regulated during the postabsorptive state?

A

The hypothalamus monitors blood glucose and releases norepinephrine and the adrenal cortex releases catecholamines, stimulating glycogen breakdown alongside glucagon released by the pancreas. Catecholamines also promote lipolysis.

94
Q

[25.7] What is fasting?

A

Going without food for many hours or days.

95
Q

[25.7] What is starvation?

A

Weeks to months with food inadequacy or deprivation.

96
Q

[25.8] What is energy balance?

A

The precise matching of energy intake to energy expenditure over time.

97
Q

[25.8] What is a calorie?

A

The amount of energy in the form of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of water 1 degree Celsius.

98
Q

[25.8] What is a kilocalorie?

A

A measurement of calories used to express energy content of food, equivalent to 1000 calories.

99
Q

[25.8] What is the metabolic rate?

A

The overall rate at which metabolic reactions use energy.

100
Q

[25.8] List the factors affecting metabolic rate.

A
  1. Hormones
  2. Exercise
  3. Nervous system
  4. Body temperature
  5. Ingestion of food
  6. Age
  7. Other factors incl. gender, sleep, malnutrition, climate, etc
101
Q

[25.8] What is the basal state?

A

The state of the body in a quiet, resting, fasting condition.

102
Q

[25.8] What is the basal metabolic rate?

A

The measurement of metabolism obtained under the basal state.

103
Q

[25.8] What is the total metabolic rate?

A

The total expenditure of the body per unit of time.

104
Q

[25.8] List the component contributing the the total metabolic rate.

A
  1. Basal metabolic rate
  2. Physical activity
  3. Food-induced thermogenesis
105
Q

[25.8] What is non-exercise activity thermogenesis?

A

The energy cost for maintaining muscle tone, posture, and involuntary fidget movements

106
Q

[25.8] Describe food-induced thermogenesis.

A

The heat produced while digesting, absorbing, and storing food.

107
Q

[25.8] What is satiety?

A

The feeling of fullness accompanied by lack of desire to eat.

108
Q

[25.8] What is leptin?

A

A hormone helping to decrease adiposity, total body-fat mass.

109
Q

[25.8] What is neuropeptide Y?

A

A neurotransmitter released when leptin and insulin is low, stimulates food intake.

110
Q

[25.8] What is ghrelin?

A

A hormone that increases appetite, produced by endocrine cells of the stomach.

111
Q

[25.9] What is heat?

A

A form of energy measured as temperature.

112
Q

[25.8] What is core temperature?

A

The temperature in body structures deep to the skin.

113
Q

[25.8] What is shell temperature?

A

Temperature near the body surface.

114
Q

[25.8] List the mechanisms of heat transfer.

A
  1. Conduction
  2. Convection
  3. Radiation
  4. Evaporation
115
Q

[25.8] Describe conduction as a mechanism of heat transfer.

A

Heat exchange that occurs between two materials in contact with each other. Approximately 3% of body heat is lost this way. Greater exchange with water than air.

116
Q

[25.8] Describe convection as a mechanism of heat transfer

A

The transfer of heat by movement of air or water between areas of different temperature.

117
Q

[25.8] Describe radiation as a mechanism of heat transfer.

A

The transfer of heat in the form of infrared rays between a warmer object and a cooler object, lacking physical contact.

118
Q

[25.8] Describe evaporation as a mechanism of heat transfer.

A

The conversion of a liquid to a vapor, taking heat with it as it evaporates.

119
Q

[25.8] What is insensible water loss?

A

The loss of water through evaporation through the skin, as well as through the mucous membranes of the mouth and respiratory system.

120
Q

[25.8] Which control center of the CNS regulates temperature?

A

The hypothalamus, specifically the preoptic area, heat-losing center, and the heat-promoting center.

121
Q

[25.8] What is thermoregulation?

A

The ability of the body to monitor core temperature and the mechanisms to produce or reduce heat.

122
Q

[25.8] List the mechanisms of the body that participate in thermoregulation.

A
  1. Vasoconstriction
  2. Release of epinephrine and norepinephrine
  3. Shivering
  4. Release of thyroid hormones.
123
Q

[25.10] What are nutrients?

A

Chemical substances in food that body cells use for growth, maintenance, and repair.

124
Q

[25.10] List the main nutrients.

A
  1. Carbohydrates
  2. Water
  3. Lipids
  4. Proteins
  5. Minerals
  6. Vitamins
125
Q

[25.10] What are essential nutrients?

A

Nutrients that the body cannot make in sufficient quantity to meet its needs.

126
Q

[25.10] What are the recommended distribution of calorie consumption?

A
  • 50-60% carbohydrates, less than 15% from sugars
  • 30% from fat, less than 10% from saturated fats
  • 12-15% from protein
127
Q

[25.10] What are minerals?

A

Inorganic elements occurring naturally in the earth’s crust.

128
Q

[25.10] What are vitamins?

A

Organic nutrients required in small amounts to maintain growth and metabolism. Do not provide energy or serve as building material.

129
Q

[25.10] What are provitamins?

A

Raw material of vitamins than can be used by the body to assemble full vitamins.

130
Q

[25.10] What are the main groups of vitamins?

A

Fat soluble and water soluble.

131
Q

[25.10] List the fat soluble vitamins.

A
  1. A
  2. D
  3. E
  4. K
132
Q

[25.10] List the water soluble vitamins.

A
  1. B
  2. C
133
Q

[25.10] What are antioxidant vitamins?

A

Vitamins that inactivate oxygen free radicals - highly reactive ions carrying an unpaired electron.

134
Q

[25.10] List the antioxidant vitamins.

A
  1. Vitamin C
  2. Vitamin E
  3. Beta-carotene

BIOL 235 (29 decks)

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