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BIOL 235 > Chr. 19 - Blood > Flashcards

Chr. 19 - Blood Flashcards

1
Q

[19.1] What is blood?

A

Liquid connective tissue consisting of cells called formed elements surrounded by plasma, the extracellular matrix.

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2
Q

[19.1] List the functions of blood.

A
  1. Transportation
  2. Regulation
  3. Protection
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3
Q

[19.1] What is the ratio of formed elements to plasma?

A

45% formed elements to 55% plasma.

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4
Q

[19.1] Describe blood plasma.

A

Watery medium making up the extracellular matrix. 91.5% water, 8.5% solutes, mainly plasma proteins.

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5
Q

[19.1] List the main types of plasma proteins.

A
  1. Albumins
  2. Globulins
  3. Fibrinogens.
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6
Q

[19.1] List the formed elements of blood.

A
  1. Red blood cells,
  2. White blood cells
  3. Platelets
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7
Q

[19.1] What is the hematocrit?

A

The percentage of total blood volume occupied by red blood cells.

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8
Q

[19.2] What is hemopoiesis?

A

The process in which formed elements of blood are created.

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9
Q

[19.2] What is red bone marrow?

A

Highly vascularized connective tissue located in trabeculae of spongy bonesproducing erythrocytes

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10
Q

[19.2] What are pluripotent stem cells?

A

Red bone marrow cells derived from mesenchyme with the capacity to develop into many different types of cells.

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11
Q

[19.2] Which cells do pluripotent stem cells produce, that can differentiate further?

A

Myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells.

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12
Q

[19.2] What are progenitor cells in terms of hemopoiesis?

A

The cells differentiated directly from pluripotent cells.

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13
Q

[19.2] What are precursor cells in terms of hemopoiesis?

A

Cells differentiated from progenitor cells.

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14
Q

[19.2] What are formed element cells in terms of hemopoiesis?

A

Mature cells differentiated from precursor cells.

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15
Q

[19.2] What are hemopoietic growth factors?

A

Hormones regulating the differentiation and proliferation of progenitor cells.

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16
Q

[19.2] What is erythropoietin?

A

A hormone increasing amount of red blood cell precursors.

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17
Q

[19.2] What is thrombopoietin?

A

A hormone stimulating formation of platelets from precursor cells.

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18
Q

[19.2] What are cytokines?

A

Small glycoproteins produced by red bone marrow, leukocytes, macrophages, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells.

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19
Q

[19.3] What are red blood cells?

A

Biconcave disc shaped cells with a strong and flexible plasma membrane, and lacking a nucleus. Contains hemoglobin.

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20
Q

[19.3] What is hemoglobin?

A

An oxygen carrying protein responsible for the red colour of RBCs

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21
Q

[19.3] Describe the composition of hemoglobin.

A

A protein composed of:
Globin, a four polypeptide chain
Heme, a ring-shaped pigment, one bound to each chain of globin that carried iron to bind oxygen.

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22
Q

[19.3] Describe how hemoglobin participates in regulation of blood pressure.

A

Hemoglobin can bind nitric oxide produced by endothelial cells of blood vessels, and released NO when stimulated to do so, causing vasodilation.

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23
Q

[19.3] Describe the recycling of RBCs from breakdown of the cell to reintegration of iron into new RBCs.

A

Macrophages in spleen, liver, or red bone marrow phagocytize old RBCs. Globin and the heme groups are split from each other, with globin being broken down into amino acids and iron removed from hemes. Tansferrin moves iron from site of splitting to storage proteins within organs, ferritin. From here, it is obtained by transferrin as needed to form new hemoglobin during erythropoiesis.

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24
Q

[19.3] Describe the recycling of RBCs following the heme group after iron has been removed.

A

Heme is converted to biliverdin and bilirubin which is transported to the liver and integrated into bile. Bile passes into the large intestine and bilirubin within bile is converted to urobilinogen, some of which is reabsorbed and converted to urobilin and excreted in urine. The rest is eliminated in feces as stercobilin.

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25
Q

[19.3] What is a proerythroblast?

A

A precursor cell synthesizing hemoglobin as it develops, eventually ejecting its nucleus and becoming an immature erythrocyte (reticulocyte).

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26
Q

[19.3] What are reticulocytes?

A

Immature red blood cells that develop into mature RBCs in 1-2 days.

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27
Q

[19.4] What are white blood cells?

A

A formed element cell containing nuclei and organelles, lacking hemoglobin.

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28
Q

[19.4] What are the classifications of leukocytes?

A

Granular and agranular.

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29
Q

[19.4] What are granular leukocytes?

A

Leukocytes with granules that are identified by their staining characteristics.

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30
Q

[19.4] What are the classifications of granular leukocytes?

A
  1. Neutrophil
  2. Eosinophil
  3. Basophil
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31
Q

[19.4] Describe neutrophils.

A

Cells with smaller, evenly distributed granules that do not stain any particular colour and not obscuring the nucleus which can contain two to five lobes. Older cells may contain more and are known as polymorphonuclear leukocytes.

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32
Q

[19.4] Describe eosinophils.

A

Large, uniform granules staining red and do not obscure the nucleus which often contain two lobes.

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33
Q

[19.4] Describe basophils.

A

Round, variable-sized granules and stain blue-purple, obscuring the nucleus which has two lobes.

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34
Q

[19.4] What are agranular leukocytes?

A

Leukocytes with tiny granules not visible and identified by poor staining quality.

35
Q

[19.4] What are the agranular leukocytes?

A

Lymphocytes and monocytes.

36
Q

[19.4] Describe lymphocytes.

A

An agranular leukocyte where the nucleus stains dark.

37
Q

[19.4] Describe monocytes.

A

Agranular leukocytes with a kidney shape appearing blue-gray due to azurophilic granules. Differentiate into macrophages.

38
Q

[19.4] What are major histocompatibility antigens?

A

Proteins protruding from plasma membrane acting as cell identity markers.

39
Q

[19.4] What are the functions of leukocytes?

A

Carry out immune responses.

40
Q

[19.4] What is leukocytosis?

A

An increase in the number of WBCs above 10,000/microliter.

41
Q

[19.4] What is leukopenia?

A

A low level of white blood cells, below 5,000 microliters.

42
Q

[19.4] What is emigration of leukocytes?

A

The process where leukocytes leave blood by rolling along endothelium and squeezing between endothelial cells.

43
Q

[19.4] What are adhesion molecules?

A

Molecules in the plasma membrane of leukocytes that allow it to adhere to endothelium.

44
Q

[19.4] What are integrins?

A

The adhesion molecules on the surface of neutrophils.

45
Q

[19.4] What is phagocytosis?

A

The ability of a cell to intake and dispose of unwanted material.

46
Q

[19.4] What is chemotaxis?

A

The attraction of leukocytes by microbes and inflamed tissues through chemical signalling.

47
Q

[19.4] What is lysozyme?

A

An enzyme that destroys bacteria.

48
Q

[19.4] What are defensins?

A

Proteins exhibiting antibiotic and antifungal properties.

49
Q

[19.4] What is a differential white blood cell count?

A

A count of each type of white blood cell to detect infection or inflammation.

50
Q

[19.4] What are the indications of a high and low blood cell count of neutrophils?

A

High: Bacterial infection, burns, stress

Low: Radiation exposure, drug toxicity, B12 deficiency, systemic lupus.

51
Q

[19.4] What are the indications of a high and low blood cell count of lymphocytes?

A

High: viral infection, leukemia, infectious mono.

Low: Prolonged illness, HIV, immunosuppression, treatment using cortisol.

52
Q

[19.4] What are the indications of a high and low blood cell count of monocytes?

A

High: viral/fungal infection, tuberculosis, leukemia.

Low: bone marrow suppression, treatment using cortisol.

53
Q

[19.4] What are the indications of a high and low blood cell count of eosinophils?

A

High: Allergic reaction, parasitic infections, autoimmune diseases

Low: Drug toxicity, stress, acute allergic reactions

54
Q

[19.4] What are the indications of a high and low blood cell count of basophils?

A

High: Allergic reactions, leukemias, cancer, hypothyroidism

Low: Pregnancy, ovulation, stress, hypothyroidism.

55
Q

[19.5] What are platelets?

A

Irregularly shaped disc with many vesicles and no nucleus. Break off from precursor cells called megakaryocytes.

56
Q

[19.7] What is hemostasis?

A

A sequence of responses that stops bleeding.

57
Q

[19.7] What are the mechanisms of hemostasis?

A
  1. Vascular spasm
  2. Platelet plug formation
  3. Blood clotting
58
Q

[19.7] Describe vascular spasms.

A

Contraction of smooth muscle in arteries/arterioles when damaged to prevent blood loss.

59
Q

[19.7] What is platelet plug formation?

A

A process leading to adhesion and accumulation of platelets near damaged endothelium of blood vessels.

60
Q

[19.7] Describe the processof platelet plug formation.

A

Platelets will stick to damaged blood vessels, activating and changing them - they extend projections and release vesicles containing ADP and thromboxane A2, activating other platelets. Other platelets become stick and change, and aggregate on the site.

61
Q

[19.7] What is serum?

A

Straw-coloured liquid of plasma without formed elements or clotting proteins.

62
Q

[19.7] What is a blood clot?

A

A gel separated from liquid of blood containing fibrin, trapping formed elements.

63
Q

[19.7] Define the process of clotting.

A

A series of chemical reactions culminating in formation of fibrin threads, referred to as coagulation.

64
Q

[19.7] What is thrombosis?

A

A condition of unnecessary blood clots forming and clotting undamaged blood vessels.

65
Q

[19.7] What are clotting factors?

A

Substances active in coagulation.

66
Q

[19.7] List the stages of coagulation.

A
  1. Extrinsic or intrinsic pathway leading to formation of prothrombinase.
  2. Conversion of prothrombin into thrombin by prothrombinase.
  3. Conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin by thrombin
67
Q

[19.7] What is the extrinsic pathway?

A

A rapid pathway of clotting initiated by tissue factor, introduced to blood by cells outside blood vessels.

68
Q

[19.7] What is the intrinsic pathway?

A

Slower, more complex pathway activated by facors within blood.

69
Q

[19.7] What is the common pathway?

A

Formation of prothrombinase, the end step of both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways, where prothrombinase catalyzes prothrombin into thrombin and ultimately fibrinogen into fibrin.

70
Q

[19.7] Describe the main effect of thrombin

A

Conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin.

71
Q

[19.7] What are the positive feedback loops initiated by thrombin?

A

Acceleration of formation of prothrombinase leading to more thrombin, and activation of platelets leading to a larger amount of coagulation beginning.

72
Q

[19.7] What is clot retraction?

A

Consolidation of the fibrin clot, pulling edges of the blood vessels closer.

73
Q

[19.7] What is the role of vitamin K in clotting?

A

It is required for synthesis of four clotting factors.

74
Q

[19.7] List the homeostatic control mechanisms for blood clotting.

A
  1. The fibrinolytic system, dissolves small inappropriate clots.
  2. Prostacyclin, opposes action of thromboxane A2
  3. Anticoagulants present in blood such as antithrombin, heparin, and activated protein C.
75
Q

[19.7] Describe the fibrinolytic system.

A

When a blood clot is formed, it integrates the inactive enzyme plasminogen. Activation of plasminogen converts it to plasmin and it begins digesting fibrin, the protein structure of the clot.

76
Q

[19.8] What are blood groups?

A

Categories of blood based on presence or absence of antigens.

77
Q

[19.8] What is an antigen?

A

Characteristic combinations of glycoproteins and glycolipids acting as identity markers.

78
Q

[19.8] What is the ABO blood group?

A

Blood group based on glycolipid antigens termed A and B. Type A feature A antigens, and type B feature B antigens. Type AB present with both, and type O present with neither.

79
Q

[19.8] What are blood antibodies?

A

Agglutinins reacting to opposing glycolipid antigens. anti-A antibodies attack A antigens, and so on.

80
Q

[19.8] What are transfusions?

A

The transfer of whole blood or blood components into the blood stream of another organism.

81
Q

[19.8] What is agglutination?

A

An antigen-antibody response in which RBCs clump due to antibody response. Results in hemolysis.

82
Q

[19.8] What is hemolysis?

A

Rupture of plasma membranes of donated RBCs due to agglutination, releasing hemoglobin into the blood stream and causing kidney damage due to inability to filter hemoglobin.

83
Q

[19.8] What is the Rh blood group?

A

A blood group based on the Rh antigen, either present or not. Can cause hemolysis after first exposure.

BIOL 235 (29 decks)

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