Chp 9.2: Thought

Question 1

propositional thought

Answer 1

thinking that takes the form of verbal sentences that we say or hear in our minds

Question 2

imaginal thought

Answer 2

a form of thinking that uses images we can see, hear, or feel in our mind

Question 3

motoric thought

Answer 3

mental representations of motor movements, such as throwing an object

Question 4

proposition

Answer 4

a statement that expresses an idea in subject-predicate form

Eg. Students are intelligent people

Question 5

concept

Answer 5

a mental category containing similar objects, people, and events
(Eg. Students/ intelligent people)

Question 6

prototype

Answer 6

• typical or average members of a category that defines a concept
• allow for classification solely based on similarity
(Eg. Eagle is a bird, fits most ppl’s ‘bird’ prototype)

Question 7

deductive reasoning

Answer 7

reasoning from a general principle to a specific case (top down) (likely to be accurate)
(“if all humans are mortal, and if Socrates is a human, then his is mortal.)

Question 8

inductive reasoning

Answer 8

reasoning that proceeds from a set of specific facts to a general conclusion or principle (bottom up) (likeliness changes with evidence)
(Eg. Always have negative consequences when drunk, conclude binge drinking is bad.)

Question 9

Name 4 possible obstacles in reasoning.

Answer 9

• irrelevant information
• belief bias
• emotions/ gut feeling
• framing

Question 10

belief bias

Answer 10

the tendency to abandon logical rules and form a conclusion based on one’s existing beliefs

Question 11

framing

Answer 11

the idea that the same information, problem, or options can be structured and presented in different ways (eg. 50% success/ 50% failure)

Question 12

Summarise the 4 major stages of problem solving

Answer 12

Stage 1: Interpret (frame) and understand the problem.
Stage 2: Generate hypotheses or possible solutions.
Stage 3: Test the solutions, hypotheses, seeking to disconfirm one or more of them
Stage 4: Evaluate results and, if necessary, revise steps 1, 2, or 3.

Question 13

Problem solving

Answer 13

trying to reach a goal when the path or the solution to the goal is unclear

Question 14

mental set

Answer 14

the tendency to stick to problem-solving strategies or solutions that have worked in the past

Question 15

problem-solving schemas

Answer 15

step-by-step scripts for selecting information and solving specialized classes of problems

Question 16

What are the 2 important strategies for problem solving?

Answer 16

• Algorithms

- Heuristics

Question 17

Algorithms

Answer 17

-more objective, logical, slower
-procedures, such as mathematical formulas, that automatically generate correct solutions to problems
(Math/chemical equations)

Question 18

heuristics

Answer 18

• more subjective, intuitive, faster

- a method of problem solving characterized by quick and easy search procedures

Question 19

means-end analysis

Answer 19

a heuristic problem-solving device in which people first define a subgoal they hope to achieve (an “end”), compare that subgoal to their present state of knowledge and, if there is discrepancy, try to find the means to reduce the difference

Question 20

subgoal analysis

Answer 20

a problem-solving heuristic in which people attack a large problem by formulating subgoals, or intermediate steps toward a solution

Question 21

representativeness heuristic

Answer 21

a guide in estimating the probability that an object or event belongs to a certain category based on the extent to which it represents a prototype of that category (based on similarity, eg. The Linda feminist/bank teller example)

Question 22

availability heuristic

Answer 22

a guideline used to make likelihood judgments based on how easily examples of that category of events come to mind, or are “available” in memory

Question 23

confirmation bias

Answer 23

the tendency to seek and favour information that reinforces our beliefs rather than to be open to disconfirming information

Question 24

overconfidence

Answer 24

the tendency to overestimate one’s correctness in factual knowledge, beliefs, and decisions

Question 25

schema

Answer 25

a “mental framework”—an organized pattern of thought about some aspect of the world, such as a class of people, events, situations, or objects

Question 26

script

Answer 26

a mental framework concerning a sequence of events that usually unfolds in a regular, almost standardized order

Question 27

wisdom

Answer 27

a system of knowledge about the meaning and conduct of life

Question 28

mental image

Answer 28

a representation of a stimulus that originates inside your brain rather than from external sensory input (use mental rotation to study)

Question 29

metacognition

Answer 29

a person’s awareness and understanding of their own cognitive abilities

Question 30

Mental imagery as perception

Answer 30

• Involves spatial representation
• Takes longer to imagine moving between landmarks that are further apart, similar to visually scanning in the real world