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Psychology > ***Chapter 9: Human Development > Flashcards

***Chapter 9: Human Development Flashcards

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1
Q

developmental psychology

A

the study of how behavior changes over the life span

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2
Q

MAOA gene

A

a gene that causes low production of MAOA enzyme, which causing heightened risk for developing into a criminal

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3
Q

nature-nurture debate

gene-environment interactions

A

the impact of genes on behavior depends on the environment in which the behavior develops

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4
Q

nature-nurture debate

example of gene-environment interactions

A

MAOA gene + delinquent peer -> violent behaviors

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5
Q

nature-nurture debate

nature via nurture

A

genetic predispositions can drive us to select + create particular environments that influence our behaviors, leading to the mistaken appearance of a pure effect of nature

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6
Q

nature-nurture debate

example of nature via nurture

A

quiet children seek out quiet environments that reinforce the quiet nature

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7
Q

nature-nurture debate

gene expression

A

some genes “turn on” only in response to specific environmental triggers

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8
Q

nature-nurture debate

example of gene expression

A

early family loss triggers the genes that predispose one to anxiety to be turned on

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9
Q

nature-nurture debate

epigenetics

A

whether genes are active is regulated day-by-day + moment-by-moment environmental conditions

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10
Q

nature-nurture debate

example of epigenetics

A

genes that are turned on don’t necessarily stay on because of environmental factors

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11
Q

during the course of human development, developmental influences are ____

A

bidirectional

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12
Q

cohort effect

A

effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time

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13
Q

cross-sectional design

A

research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time
-snapshots
-no control for cohort effect

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14
Q

longitudinal design

A

research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time
-examines true developmental effect
-costly, time-consuming

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15
Q

post hoc fallacy

A

the mistake of assuming that because A comes before B, A must cause B

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16
Q

zygote

A

fertilized egg

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17
Q

blastocyst

A

ball of identical cells that hasn’t yet begun to take on any specific function in a body part
-zygote divides to form this

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18
Q

course of prenatal development

A

germinal period, embryonic period, fetal period

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19
Q

prenatal development

germinal period

A

first 2 weeks after conception
-first week: the fertilized egg (zygote) + divides to form blastocyst (a ball of identical cells that haven’t yet begun to take on any specific function in a body part)
second week: embedding of blastocyst in the uterine wall (implantation); differentiation of cells/task specialization begins

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20
Q

prenatal development

embryonic period

A

2-8 weeks after conception, blastocyst becomes an embryo
-limbs, facial features, major organs begin to take shape
-life support systems (amnion, umbilical cord, placenta) develop
-spontaneous miscarriages often occur during this period

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21
Q

prenatal development

in what period do spontaneus miscarriages tend to occur?

A

embryonic period

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22
Q

prenatal development

fetal period

A

2 months after conception until birth
-heart begins to beat
-embryo becomes fetus
-major job is physical maturation, fleshing out
-last third of pregnancy for bulking up

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23
Q

prenatal development

brain development time period

A

18 days of pregnancy + beyond

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24
Q

prenatal development

brain development

A

-brain continues to develop into early adulthood
-between 18th day of pregnancy + end of 6th month, neurons begin developing at astronomical rate (proliferation)
-4th month + throughout pregnancy, migration of cells begins to occur, moving to final positions in specific structures of brain

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25
Q

prenatal development

what occurs between 18th day of pregnancy + end of 6th month

A

neurons begin developing at astronomical rate (proliferation)

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26
Q

prenatal development

what occurs starting the 4th month + throughout pregnancy

A

migration of cells begins to occur, moving to the final positions in specific structures of the brain

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27
Q

obstacles to normal fetal development

A

-premature birth
-low birth weight
-hazardout environmental influences
-genetic disorder

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28
Q

premature birth time period

A

less than 36 weeks in gestation

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29
Q

viability point

A

premature birth higher chance to survive at 25 weeks or later
-if before 24 weeks, very low chance of survival

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30
Q

what is considered low birth weight

A

less than 5.5lbs for a full-term baby

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31
Q

teratogens

A

an environmental factor that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development (drugs, alcohol, x-rays, etc.)

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32
Q

fetal alcohol syndrome

A

condition resulting from high levels of prenatal alcohol exposure, causing learning disabilities, physical growth retardation, facial malformations, + behavioral disorders

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33
Q

cognitive development

A

study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, reason, communicate, + remember

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34
Q

cognitive developmental theories differ in 3 core ways

A

-is cognitive development stage-like or continuous?
-is congitive development domain-general or domain-specific?
-is cognitive development out of physical experience, social interaction, and/or biological maturation?

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35
Q

domain-general

A

relies on social interaction as a source of support

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36
Q

domain-specific

A

depends on biological maturation
-continuous

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37
Q

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

A

-1st to present a comprehensive account of cognitive development
-children are active learners with different understanding of the world from adults

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38
Q

according to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, development is
-continuous or stage-like
-domain-general or domain-specific
-via ____ interaction

A

-stage-like
-domain-general
-physical interaction

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39
Q

according to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, cognitive change is a result of what

A

children’s need to achieve equilibration

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40
Q

Piaget

equilibration

A

balance between the experience of the world + the understanding of it

-disequilibration -> equilibration -> disequilibration…

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41
Q

Piaget

assimilation

A

the process of absorbing new experience into our current understanding

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42
Q

Piaget

accomodation

A

the process of altering beliefs about the world to make them more compatible with experience which leads to stage changes

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43
Q

order of Piaget’s stages

A

-sensorimotor
-preoperational
-concrete operational
-formal operational

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44
Q

stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

A

sensorimotor stage:
-0-2 years old
-child begins to interact with environment, no thought beyond immediate physical experiences
-mental representation is assessed by object permanance task

preoperational stage:
-2-6/7 years old
-child begins to represent the world symbolically, able to think beyond here + now, but egocentric + unable to perform mental transformations/operations
-mental transformation assessed by 3 mountain task

concrete operational stage:
-7-11/12 years old
-able to perform mental transformations but only on concrete physical objects
-assessesd by conservation task

formal operational stage:
-12-adulthood
-adolescent can transcend concrete situations + think about future
-ability to perform hypothetical + abstract reasoning assessed by pendulum task

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45
Q

Piaget

how is the sensorimotor stage assessed

A

object permanence task

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46
Q

Piaget

object permanence task

A

if you hide a toy under a blanket + infant knows the toy is under the blanket by finding it

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47
Q

Piaget

how is the preoperational stage assessed

A

3 mountain task

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48
Q

Piaget

3 mountain task

A

a child is faced a display of 3 model mountains while a researcher places a doll at different viewpoints of the display
-they should be able to recognize from all 3 views

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49
Q

Piaget

how is the concrete operational stage assessed

A

conservation task

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50
Q

Piaget

conservation task

A

if 2 children are shown 2 identical objects but in different organizations (like 1 cookie broken in half + the other broken in quarters)
-they should be able to recognize it is the same amount of cookie

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51
Q

Piaget

what assesses the formal operational stage

A

pendulum task

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52
Q

Piaget

pendulum task

A

compare motions of longer + shorter strings, with lighter + heavier weights attached, in order to determine the influence of weight, string length, + dropping point on time it takes for pendulum to swing back + forth

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53
Q

pros of Piaget’s theory

A

-view children as different in kind from adults
-learning is active (cognitive constructivist)
-parsimonious general account of cognitive processes

54
Q

cons of Piaget’s theory

A

-much of development is continuous, less domain-general
-underestimate child’s ability due to relying on child report/reflection
-some observed phenmena may be partially a product of task demand
-culturally biased

55
Q

Vygotsky’s theory

A

social constructivist approach
-social contexts of learning
-construction of knowledge through social interaction

56
Q

Vygotsky’s theory

scaffolding

A

Vygotskian learning mechanism in which parents provide initial assistance in children’s learning but gradually remove structure as hilcdren become more competent

57
Q

Vygotsky’s theory

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

A

phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction
-emphasizes continuous development, social interaction, + no domain general stages

58
Q

Vygotsky’s theory

upper limit of ZPD

A

level of additional responsibility the child can accept with assistance of an able instructor

59
Q

Vygotsky’s theory

lower limit of ZPD

A

level of problem solving reached on these tasks by child working alone

60
Q

Vygotsky’s theory

how do children learn language…during 1st year or so after birth

A

infants learn much more about the sounds of their native language
-babbling as intentional vocalization that lacks meaning

61
Q

Vygotsky’s theory

how do children learn language…by the end of their 1st year

A

infants’ babbling takes on a conservational tone that sounds meaningful though isn’t

62
Q

Vygotsky’s theory

in early word learning… comprehension precedes/follows production

A

comprehension precedes production

63
Q

Vygotsky’s theory

how do children learn…around their 1st birthdays

A

children start to produce their 1st words with variability in this milestone

64
Q

Vygotsky’s theory

describe syntax development

A

 1-word stage -> 2-word stage -> more complex sentences with 3/4-word combinations with morphological markers -> acquire most syntactic rules by preschool age -> acquire more complex rules in early school years

65
Q

Vygotsky’s theory

critical period

A

narrow windows of time in development during which an organism but learn an ability if it’s going to learn it at all

66
Q

Vygotsky’s theory

sensitive period

A

an interval during which period are more receptive to learning + can acquire new knowledge more easily

67
Q

what is wrong with the theory that children learn language through imitation

A

this can’t explain the generativity of language, like using finite vocab for infinite word expressions

68
Q

nativist theory of language acquisition

A

children come into the world with basic knowledge of how language works
-Broca’s area vs. Wernicke’s area
-language acquisition device by Noam Chosmky

69
Q

language acquisition device

A

hypothetical organ in the brain in which nativists believe knowledge of syntax resides

70
Q

what is wrong with the nativist view

A

it is difficult to falsify

71
Q

cognitive landmarks of early development

A

-physical reasoning
-concepts + categories
-self-concept + concept of others

72
Q

object permanence

A

objects continue to exist when they’re out of view

73
Q

self-concept + concepts of others at age 1

A

recongize self in mirror

74
Q

self-concept + concepts of others at age 2

A

-recognize picture of self
-refer to self by name

75
Q

self-concept + concepts of others at age 4-5

A

pass the test of Theory of mind

76
Q

theory of mind

A

children’s ability to reason about what other people believe, realizing “other people may not know what I know”

77
Q

attachment

A

the emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest

78
Q

Freud view of attachment

A

infants become attached to the person that provides oral satisfaction

79
Q

Behaviorist view of attachment

A

milk + foot reinforce bonding

80
Q

Hawlow view of attachment

A

contact comfort preferred over food

81
Q

imprinting

A

gooselings follow around the first large moving object they see after hatching within a sensitive period

82
Q

infant attachment is a form of ____

A

a softer form of imprinting

83
Q

findings from the Romanian orphanages

A

infants from the Romanian orphanages adopted before, rather than after, 6 months of age fared well later

84
Q

ethological theory of attachment

who came up with this theory

A

John Bowlby

85
Q

ethological theory of attachment

how many stages of attachment

A

4

86
Q

ethological theory of attachment

phases of attachment

A

phase 1:
-0-2 months
-pre-attachment, prefer human figures

phase 2:
-2-7 months
-attachment in the making, focus on primary caregiver

phase 3:
-7-24 months
-clear-cut attachment, actively seek contact with regular caregivers

phase 4:
-24 months + on
-formation of reciprocal relationship, aware of others feelings, goals, + plans in forming their own actions

87
Q

Ainsworth + Bell (1970)

A

measuring types of attachment using the strange situation

88
Q

secure attachment

A

explore, check with mom, returns to mom when a stranger comes, distressed/upset at mom’s leaving, happy at mom’s return

89
Q

internal working model of secure attachment

A

“I am lovable + worthy, + my caregiver id dependable”

90
Q

what % of U.S. babies have secure attachment

A

60%

91
Q

insecure-avoidant attachment

A

explore without checking in with mom, indifferent to the entry of strangers, no distress at mom’s departure, little reaction at mom’s return

92
Q

internal working model of insecure-avoidant attachment

A

“I’d better hide my distress to not annoy mom so mom would not go further away from me”

93
Q

what % of U.S. babies have insecure-avoidant attachment

A

15-20%

94
Q

insecure-anxious attachment

A

not explore toys without mom’s assistance, distressed at strangers, panic at mom’s departure, mixed emotion reaction at mom’s return

95
Q

internal working model of insecure-anxious attachment

A

“I’d better amplify my stress to draw attention from mom so mom could attend my needs”

96
Q

what % U.S. babies have insecure-anxious attachment

A

15-20%

97
Q

insecure-disorganized attachment

A

react to toys, strangers, mom’s departure, inconsistent confused responses, dazed, contradictory, disoriented, incomprehensive

98
Q

internal working model for insecure-disorganized attachment

A

“Why is mom so scary? I am confused. I don’t know what to do”

99
Q

what % of U.S. babies have insecure-disorganized attachment

A

5-10%

100
Q

what parenting style creates secure attachment

A

sensitive + responsive parenting

101
Q

what parenting style creates insecure avoidant attachment

A

rejecting parenting

102
Q

what parenting style creates insecure anxious attachment

A

inconsistent parenting

103
Q

what parenting style creates insecure disorganized attachment

A

atypical parenting

104
Q

average expectable environment

A

an environment that provides children with basic needs for affection + appropriate discipline

105
Q

authoritarian parenting

A

-demanding, controlling
-rejecting, unresponsive

106
Q

authoritative parenting

A

-demanding, controlling
-accepting, responsive

107
Q

uninvolved parenting

A

-undemanding, uncontrolling
-rejecting, unresponsive

108
Q

permissive parenting

A

-undemanding, uncontrolling
-acceptive, responsive

109
Q

sex

A

biological

110
Q

gender

A

psychological characteristics

111
Q

gender identity

A

our sense of ourselves as being male/female

112
Q

gender role

A

the behaviors that typically tend to be associated with being male/female

113
Q

cisgender

A

biological sex = gender identity

114
Q

transgender

A

gender identity doesn’t = biological sex

115
Q

gender segregation

A

boys prefer to hang out with boys
-girls with girls

116
Q

primary sex characteristic

A

a physical feature such as the reproductive organs + genitals that distinguish the sexes

117
Q

secondary sex characteristic

A

a sex-differentiating characteristic that doesn’t relate directly to reproduction, such as breast enlargement in women + deepening voices in men

118
Q

menarche

A

start of menstruation

119
Q

menopause

A

termination of menstruation, marking end of woman’s reproductive potential

120
Q

Erikson’s psychosocial stages of personality development

A

-8 stages

121
Q

Erikson’s psychosocial stages of personality development

identity crisis

A

a developmental crisis that everyone develops at some point in their life

122
Q

Erikson’s psychosocial stages of personality development

stages

A

stage 1:
-infancy
-trust vs mistrust, feeding is established

stage 2:
-toddlerhood
-autonomy vs shame/doubt, potty training

stage 3:
-preschool
-initiative vs guilt

stage 4:
-school age, 6-12 years old
-industry vs inferiority, school experiences

stage 5:
-adolescnece
-identity vs role confusion, self-understanding

stage 6:
-early adulthood
-intimacy vs isolation, relationships

stage 7:
-middle adulthood
-generativity vs stagnation, adults supporting younger generation

stage 8:
-late adulthood
-ego integrity vs despair, reflection upon life

123
Q

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

A

3 levels of morality

124
Q

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

levels

A

level 1: preconventional morality
level 2: conventional morality
level 3: postconventional morality

125
Q

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

preconventional morality

A

focus on punishment + reward
-don’t do drugs because mom will spank you

126
Q

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

conventional morality

A

focus on societal values, laws, what society approves of
-don’t do drugs because it’s against the law

127
Q

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

postconventional morality

A

focus on internal moral principles that might differ from conventional societal values
-don’t do drugs because they will deprive you from enjoying the world

128
Q

biological age

A

estimate of a person’s age in terms of biological functioning
-knee/heart functinoing

129
Q

psychological age

A

a person’s mental attitudes + agility + the capacity to deal with the stresses of an ever-changing environment
-memory, ability to learn, personality

130
Q

functional age

A

a person’s ability to function in given roles in society

131
Q

social age

A

whether people behave in accord with social behaviors appropriate for their age
“she dresses too old for her age”

Psychology (15 decks)

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