***Chapter 9: Human Development Flashcards
developmental psychology
the study of how behavior changes over the life span
MAOA gene
a gene that causes low production of MAOA enzyme, which causing heightened risk for developing into a criminal
nature-nurture debate
gene-environment interactions
the impact of genes on behavior depends on the environment in which the behavior develops
nature-nurture debate
example of gene-environment interactions
MAOA gene + delinquent peer -> violent behaviors
nature-nurture debate
nature via nurture
genetic predispositions can drive us to select + create particular environments that influence our behaviors, leading to the mistaken appearance of a pure effect of nature
nature-nurture debate
example of nature via nurture
quiet children seek out quiet environments that reinforce the quiet nature
nature-nurture debate
gene expression
some genes “turn on” only in response to specific environmental triggers
nature-nurture debate
example of gene expression
early family loss triggers the genes that predispose one to anxiety to be turned on
nature-nurture debate
epigenetics
whether genes are active is regulated day-by-day + moment-by-moment environmental conditions
nature-nurture debate
example of epigenetics
genes that are turned on don’t necessarily stay on because of environmental factors
during the course of human development, developmental influences are ____
bidirectional
cohort effect
effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time
cross-sectional design
research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time
-snapshots
-no control for cohort effect
longitudinal design
research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time
-examines true developmental effect
-costly, time-consuming
post hoc fallacy
the mistake of assuming that because A comes before B, A must cause B
zygote
fertilized egg
blastocyst
ball of identical cells that hasn’t yet begun to take on any specific function in a body part
-zygote divides to form this
course of prenatal development
germinal period, embryonic period, fetal period
prenatal development
germinal period
first 2 weeks after conception
-first week: the fertilized egg (zygote) + divides to form blastocyst (a ball of identical cells that haven’t yet begun to take on any specific function in a body part)
second week: embedding of blastocyst in the uterine wall (implantation); differentiation of cells/task specialization begins
prenatal development
embryonic period
2-8 weeks after conception, blastocyst becomes an embryo
-limbs, facial features, major organs begin to take shape
-life support systems (amnion, umbilical cord, placenta) develop
-spontaneous miscarriages often occur during this period
prenatal development
in what period do spontaneus miscarriages tend to occur?
embryonic period
prenatal development
fetal period
2 months after conception until birth
-heart begins to beat
-embryo becomes fetus
-major job is physical maturation, fleshing out
-last third of pregnancy for bulking up
prenatal development
brain development time period
18 days of pregnancy + beyond
prenatal development
brain development
-brain continues to develop into early adulthood
-between 18th day of pregnancy + end of 6th month, neurons begin developing at astronomical rate (proliferation)
-4th month + throughout pregnancy, migration of cells begins to occur, moving to final positions in specific structures of brain
prenatal development
what occurs between 18th day of pregnancy + end of 6th month
neurons begin developing at astronomical rate (proliferation)
prenatal development
what occurs starting the 4th month + throughout pregnancy
migration of cells begins to occur, moving to the final positions in specific structures of the brain
obstacles to normal fetal development
-premature birth
-low birth weight
-hazardout environmental influences
-genetic disorder
premature birth time period
less than 36 weeks in gestation
viability point
premature birth higher chance to survive at 25 weeks or later
-if before 24 weeks, very low chance of survival
what is considered low birth weight
less than 5.5lbs for a full-term baby
teratogens
an environmental factor that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development (drugs, alcohol, x-rays, etc.)
fetal alcohol syndrome
condition resulting from high levels of prenatal alcohol exposure, causing learning disabilities, physical growth retardation, facial malformations, + behavioral disorders
cognitive development
study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, reason, communicate, + remember
cognitive developmental theories differ in 3 core ways
-is cognitive development stage-like or continuous?
-is congitive development domain-general or domain-specific?
-is cognitive development out of physical experience, social interaction, and/or biological maturation?
domain-general
relies on social interaction as a source of support
domain-specific
depends on biological maturation
-continuous
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
-1st to present a comprehensive account of cognitive development
-children are active learners with different understanding of the world from adults
according to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, development is
-continuous or stage-like
-domain-general or domain-specific
-via ____ interaction
-stage-like
-domain-general
-physical interaction
according to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, cognitive change is a result of what
children’s need to achieve equilibration
Piaget
equilibration
balance between the experience of the world + the understanding of it
-disequilibration -> equilibration -> disequilibration…
Piaget
assimilation
the process of absorbing new experience into our current understanding
Piaget
accomodation
the process of altering beliefs about the world to make them more compatible with experience which leads to stage changes
order of Piaget’s stages
-sensorimotor
-preoperational
-concrete operational
-formal operational
stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
sensorimotor stage:
-0-2 years old
-child begins to interact with environment, no thought beyond immediate physical experiences
-mental representation is assessed by object permanance task
preoperational stage:
-2-6/7 years old
-child begins to represent the world symbolically, able to think beyond here + now, but egocentric + unable to perform mental transformations/operations
-mental transformation assessed by 3 mountain task
concrete operational stage:
-7-11/12 years old
-able to perform mental transformations but only on concrete physical objects
-assessesd by conservation task
formal operational stage:
-12-adulthood
-adolescent can transcend concrete situations + think about future
-ability to perform hypothetical + abstract reasoning assessed by pendulum task
Piaget
how is the sensorimotor stage assessed
object permanence task
Piaget
object permanence task
if you hide a toy under a blanket + infant knows the toy is under the blanket by finding it
Piaget
how is the preoperational stage assessed
3 mountain task
Piaget
3 mountain task
a child is faced a display of 3 model mountains while a researcher places a doll at different viewpoints of the display
-they should be able to recognize from all 3 views
Piaget
how is the concrete operational stage assessed
conservation task
Piaget
conservation task
if 2 children are shown 2 identical objects but in different organizations (like 1 cookie broken in half + the other broken in quarters)
-they should be able to recognize it is the same amount of cookie
Piaget
what assesses the formal operational stage
pendulum task
Piaget
pendulum task
compare motions of longer + shorter strings, with lighter + heavier weights attached, in order to determine the influence of weight, string length, + dropping point on time it takes for pendulum to swing back + forth
pros of Piaget’s theory
-view children as different in kind from adults
-learning is active (cognitive constructivist)
-parsimonious general account of cognitive processes
cons of Piaget’s theory
-much of development is continuous, less domain-general
-underestimate child’s ability due to relying on child report/reflection
-some observed phenmena may be partially a product of task demand
-culturally biased
Vygotsky’s theory
social constructivist approach
-social contexts of learning
-construction of knowledge through social interaction
Vygotsky’s theory
scaffolding
Vygotskian learning mechanism in which parents provide initial assistance in children’s learning but gradually remove structure as hilcdren become more competent
Vygotsky’s theory
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction
-emphasizes continuous development, social interaction, + no domain general stages
Vygotsky’s theory
upper limit of ZPD
level of additional responsibility the child can accept with assistance of an able instructor
Vygotsky’s theory
lower limit of ZPD
level of problem solving reached on these tasks by child working alone
Vygotsky’s theory
how do children learn language…during 1st year or so after birth
infants learn much more about the sounds of their native language
-babbling as intentional vocalization that lacks meaning
Vygotsky’s theory
how do children learn language…by the end of their 1st year
infants’ babbling takes on a conservational tone that sounds meaningful though isn’t
Vygotsky’s theory
in early word learning… comprehension precedes/follows production
comprehension precedes production
Vygotsky’s theory
how do children learn…around their 1st birthdays
children start to produce their 1st words with variability in this milestone
Vygotsky’s theory
describe syntax development
1-word stage -> 2-word stage -> more complex sentences with 3/4-word combinations with morphological markers -> acquire most syntactic rules by preschool age -> acquire more complex rules in early school years
Vygotsky’s theory
critical period
narrow windows of time in development during which an organism but learn an ability if it’s going to learn it at all
Vygotsky’s theory
sensitive period
an interval during which period are more receptive to learning + can acquire new knowledge more easily
what is wrong with the theory that children learn language through imitation
this can’t explain the generativity of language, like using finite vocab for infinite word expressions
nativist theory of language acquisition
children come into the world with basic knowledge of how language works
-Broca’s area vs. Wernicke’s area
-language acquisition device by Noam Chosmky
language acquisition device
hypothetical organ in the brain in which nativists believe knowledge of syntax resides
what is wrong with the nativist view
it is difficult to falsify
cognitive landmarks of early development
-physical reasoning
-concepts + categories
-self-concept + concept of others
object permanence
objects continue to exist when they’re out of view
self-concept + concepts of others at age 1
recongize self in mirror
self-concept + concepts of others at age 2
-recognize picture of self
-refer to self by name
self-concept + concepts of others at age 4-5
pass the test of Theory of mind
theory of mind
children’s ability to reason about what other people believe, realizing “other people may not know what I know”
attachment
the emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest
Freud view of attachment
infants become attached to the person that provides oral satisfaction
Behaviorist view of attachment
milk + foot reinforce bonding
Hawlow view of attachment
contact comfort preferred over food
imprinting
gooselings follow around the first large moving object they see after hatching within a sensitive period
infant attachment is a form of ____
a softer form of imprinting
findings from the Romanian orphanages
infants from the Romanian orphanages adopted before, rather than after, 6 months of age fared well later
ethological theory of attachment
who came up with this theory
John Bowlby
ethological theory of attachment
how many stages of attachment
4
ethological theory of attachment
phases of attachment
phase 1:
-0-2 months
-pre-attachment, prefer human figures
phase 2:
-2-7 months
-attachment in the making, focus on primary caregiver
phase 3:
-7-24 months
-clear-cut attachment, actively seek contact with regular caregivers
phase 4:
-24 months + on
-formation of reciprocal relationship, aware of others feelings, goals, + plans in forming their own actions
Ainsworth + Bell (1970)
measuring types of attachment using the strange situation
secure attachment
explore, check with mom, returns to mom when a stranger comes, distressed/upset at mom’s leaving, happy at mom’s return
internal working model of secure attachment
“I am lovable + worthy, + my caregiver id dependable”
what % of U.S. babies have secure attachment
60%
insecure-avoidant attachment
explore without checking in with mom, indifferent to the entry of strangers, no distress at mom’s departure, little reaction at mom’s return
internal working model of insecure-avoidant attachment
“I’d better hide my distress to not annoy mom so mom would not go further away from me”
what % of U.S. babies have insecure-avoidant attachment
15-20%
insecure-anxious attachment
not explore toys without mom’s assistance, distressed at strangers, panic at mom’s departure, mixed emotion reaction at mom’s return
internal working model of insecure-anxious attachment
“I’d better amplify my stress to draw attention from mom so mom could attend my needs”
what % U.S. babies have insecure-anxious attachment
15-20%
insecure-disorganized attachment
react to toys, strangers, mom’s departure, inconsistent confused responses, dazed, contradictory, disoriented, incomprehensive
internal working model for insecure-disorganized attachment
“Why is mom so scary? I am confused. I don’t know what to do”
what % of U.S. babies have insecure-disorganized attachment
5-10%
what parenting style creates secure attachment
sensitive + responsive parenting
what parenting style creates insecure avoidant attachment
rejecting parenting
what parenting style creates insecure anxious attachment
inconsistent parenting
what parenting style creates insecure disorganized attachment
atypical parenting
average expectable environment
an environment that provides children with basic needs for affection + appropriate discipline
authoritarian parenting
-demanding, controlling
-rejecting, unresponsive
authoritative parenting
-demanding, controlling
-accepting, responsive
uninvolved parenting
-undemanding, uncontrolling
-rejecting, unresponsive
permissive parenting
-undemanding, uncontrolling
-acceptive, responsive
sex
biological
gender
psychological characteristics
gender identity
our sense of ourselves as being male/female
gender role
the behaviors that typically tend to be associated with being male/female
cisgender
biological sex = gender identity
transgender
gender identity doesn’t = biological sex
gender segregation
boys prefer to hang out with boys
-girls with girls
primary sex characteristic
a physical feature such as the reproductive organs + genitals that distinguish the sexes
secondary sex characteristic
a sex-differentiating characteristic that doesn’t relate directly to reproduction, such as breast enlargement in women + deepening voices in men
menarche
start of menstruation
menopause
termination of menstruation, marking end of woman’s reproductive potential
Erikson’s psychosocial stages of personality development
-8 stages
Erikson’s psychosocial stages of personality development
identity crisis
a developmental crisis that everyone develops at some point in their life
Erikson’s psychosocial stages of personality development
stages
stage 1:
-infancy
-trust vs mistrust, feeding is established
stage 2:
-toddlerhood
-autonomy vs shame/doubt, potty training
stage 3:
-preschool
-initiative vs guilt
stage 4:
-school age, 6-12 years old
-industry vs inferiority, school experiences
stage 5:
-adolescnece
-identity vs role confusion, self-understanding
stage 6:
-early adulthood
-intimacy vs isolation, relationships
stage 7:
-middle adulthood
-generativity vs stagnation, adults supporting younger generation
stage 8:
-late adulthood
-ego integrity vs despair, reflection upon life
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
3 levels of morality
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
levels
level 1: preconventional morality
level 2: conventional morality
level 3: postconventional morality
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
preconventional morality
focus on punishment + reward
-don’t do drugs because mom will spank you
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
conventional morality
focus on societal values, laws, what society approves of
-don’t do drugs because it’s against the law
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
postconventional morality
focus on internal moral principles that might differ from conventional societal values
-don’t do drugs because they will deprive you from enjoying the world
biological age
estimate of a person’s age in terms of biological functioning
-knee/heart functinoing
psychological age
a person’s mental attitudes + agility + the capacity to deal with the stresses of an ever-changing environment
-memory, ability to learn, personality
functional age
a person’s ability to function in given roles in society
social age
whether people behave in accord with social behaviors appropriate for their age
“she dresses too old for her age”
