Chapter 7: Memory Flashcards
memories are reconstructive or reproductive?
reconstructive
-we actively reconstruct our memories using the cues/info available to us when we try to recall an event
-we don’t passively reporduce our memories
memory
the retention of information over time
memory paradox
the same memory mechanisms that serve us well in most circumstances can sometimes cause harm in others
memory illusion
a false but subjectively compelling memory
hyperthymestic syndrome
condition in which an individual processes a superior autobiographical memory
-also called highly superior autobiographical memory
what do individuals with autism lack?
specialized memory abilities
-but there are impressive exceptions; they possess remarkable memory capacities
what are the 3 types of memory
-sensory memory
-short-term memory
-long-term memory
how do the 3 types of memory differ?
-span (how much info they can hold)
-duration (how long a period of time that type of memory can hold info)
sensory memory
-fleeting
-brief storage of perceptual info before it is passed to STM
2 functions of sensory memory
-collects + briefly holds for possible further processing
-percieves the world as a continuous stream of events, rather than visual auditory snapshots
iconic memory
visual sensory memory
iconic store
-visual
-explains eidtic/photographic memory
how long does iconic store take?
1 second
is photographic memory part of sensory memory?
no- it is already past sensory memory but is supported by it
echoic memory
auditory sensory memory
echoic store
auditory
how long does echoic store take?
5-10 seconds
short-term memory
retains information for limited durations
what is short-term memory closely related to?
working memory
working memory
our ability to hold onto info we’re currently thinking about, attending to, or actively processing
how long does short-term memory hold?
no longer than 20 seconds
magic number
the digit span of most adults’ STM is between 5 and 9 digits, with an average of 7 digits
how to increase the duration of short-term memory
-maintenance rehearsal
-elaborative rehearsal
maintenance rehearsal
repeating the stimuli in their original form
elaborative rehearsal
elaborate on the stimuli we need to remember by linking them in some meaningful way
is maintenance or elaborative rehearsal preferred?
elaborative
how to increase the memory span of the short-term memory?
chunking
chunking
-organization of information into meaningful groups
-allows us to extend the span of the STM
decay
fading of information from STM
interference
-our memories get in the way of each other
-loss of information from memory because of competition from additional incoming information
proactive interference
-interference with acquisition of new information due to previous learning of information
-the old is interfering with the new
retroactive interference
-interference with retention of old info due to the acquisition of new info
-the new interfering with the old
proactive or retroactive interference?
an experienced tennis player starts to play racquetball but finds his tennis swings getting in the way of his learning how to swing a racquetball racquet
proactive
proactive or retroactive interference?
I moved from NC to FL a few years ago. Now I can only remember my FL home address + completely forgot about my NC home address.
retroactive
3 ways memories may be encoded
-visual encoding (through imagery)
-acoustic encoding (through sound)
-semantic encoding (through meaning)
STM or LTM?: visual encoding
STM
STM or LTM?: acoustic encoding
STM
STM or LTM?: semantic encoding
LTM
long-term memory
-a relatively enduring retention of memory through semantic encoding
-includes facts, experiences, + skills acquired over time
-has a huge capacity + retains info from minutes to years
semantic memory
our knowledge of facts about the world
episodic memory
recollection of events in our lives
permastore
type of long-term memory that appears to be permanent
how do LTM + STM differ
in memory capacity, duration, + mistake types
how many stimuli can STM hold at a time
7-9
when does STM vanish
after only 20 seconds or less
describe STM errors
acoustic
-misremembering hearing “noodle” vs “poodle”
describes LTM errors
semantic
-misremebering “poodle” as “terrier”
explicit memory
conscious
implicit memory
not conscious
branches of explicit memory
-episodic memory
-semantic memory
branches of implicit memory
-procedural memory
-priming
episodic memory
personal experiences
semantic memory
facts about the world
procedural memory
how to do things
priming
ability to identify a stimulus more easily after previous exposure
encoding
the process of getting info into our memory bank
-attention + mnemonics
next-in-line effect
poor memory for what the person immediately before you said
storage
the process of keeping information in memory
schema
an organized knowledge structure or mental model that we’ve stored in memory
retrieval
finding it when you need it
levels of processing of encoding
the more deeply we process info, the better we tend to remember it
level of visual processing/encoding
most shallow
level of phonological processing/encoding
somewhat less shallow
level of semantic processing/encoding
deepest
forms of encoding
-mnemonic
-pegword
-method of loci
-keyword
-music
mnemonic
a learning aid, strategy, or device that enhances recall
pegword
using rhyme ot recall ordered lists of words
method of loci
-relying on images
-locations to aid memorization
keyword
mostly used when using relevant words in a native language to remember the vocabulary in another language
music
putting material to be learned to a familiar melody
3 ways of measuring memory
-recognition
-recall
-relearning
recognition
selecting previously remembered info from an array of options
recall
generating previously remembered information
relearning
having studied something, no need to take as much time to refresh our memories of it
primacy effect
recall information presented at the beginning better
recency effect
recall information presented at the end better
serial position curve
graph depicting both primacy + recency effects on people’s ability to recall items on a list
Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve
-the law of distributed vs massed practice
-we tend to remember things better in the long run when we spread our learning over long intervals than when we pack it into short intervals
distributed vs massed practice
studying info in small increments over time (distributed) vs in large increments over a brief amount of time (massed)
retrieval cues
any type of hint/association that helps you retrieve something from the LTM
TOT phenomenon (tip of the tongue)
experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access it
encoding specificity
we are more likely to remember something when the conditions present at the same time we encoded it are also present at retrieval
context-dependent learning
superior retrieval when the external context of the original memories
state-dependent learning
superial retrieval of memories when the organism is the same physiological or psychological state as it was during encoding
context or state-dependent learning?
I remember vocabular better when I am tested in the language lab of Dr. King where I learned the vocab initially
context-dependent learning
context or state-dependent learning?
I remember the book details better when I am having a cup of coffee because I was having a cup of coffee when I was reading the book initially
state-dependent learning
where are memories of different features of experiences stored?
in different brain regions
long-term potentiation (LTP)
a gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons by repetitive stimulation over time
-neurons that fire together wire together
what does long-term potentiation enhance?
-enhances the release of glutamate into the synaptic cleft
-activates postynaptic receptors for NMDA + AMPA, resulting in enhanced learning
where is the hippocampus located
embedded in the temporal lobe
hippocampus
plays a critical role in forming lasting memories, especially sptial memory + explicit memory of event facts
explicit memory
memories we recall intentionally + of which we have conscious awareness
implicit memory
memories we don’t deliberately remember/reflect on consciously
procedural memory
subtype of implicit memory; memory for how to do things, including motor skills + habits
priming
subtype of implicit memory; our ability to identify a stimulus easier/quicker after we’ve encountered similar stimuli
prefrontal cortex
one of the major “banks” of memories
amygdala
helps us recall emotions associated with fear-provoking events
what is the emotional component of memories
amygdala
what is the factual component of memories
hippocampus
generalized amnesia
loss of details of previous life
-rare
retrograde amnesia
loss of some memories of our past
-not common
anterograde amnesia
loss of the capacity to form new memories
what causes anterograde amnesia
brain damage
H.M.’s case
removing the left + right hippocampi for seizure treatment resulted in anterograde amnesia
infantile amnesia
the inability of adults to retrieve accurate memories before an early age (before age 3)
memory deterioration in Alzheimer’s diesase
-memory loss begins with recent events, with memories of the distant past being the last to go
-Alzheimer’s brain contains many senile plagues + neurofibrillary tangles, which contribute to the loss of the synapses + death of cells in the hippocampus + cerebral cortex
-degeneration + death of acetylcholine neurons in the forebrain
-enlargement of the ventricles + severe loss of the cortex in areas involved in language + memory
memory spans decrease/increase with age
increase
what age does the magic number become 7
12 or so
conceptual understanding decreases/increases with age
increases
what skills do children develop
enhanced meta-memory skills
meta-memory
knowledge about our own memory abilities + limitations
flashbulb memories
-emotional memories that are so extraordinarily vivid + detailed
-seem so vivid that people appear to recount them in remarkable, even photographic detail
phantom flashbulb memory
false flashbulb memories
do flashbulb memories change over time?
yes
source monitoring
our efforts to identify the origins/sources of the memory
-can result in false beleifs about events one claims to have experienced
source monitoring confusion
a lack of clarity about the origin of a memory
imagination inflation
imagining an event inflates confidence in the likelihood that it occurred
cryptomnesia
hidden memory whereby we mistakenly forget that one of our ideas originated with someone else
suggestive memory techniques
procedures that encourage patients to recall memories that may or may not have taken place
**
misinformation effect
creations of fictitious memories by providing misleading information about an event after it takes place
lost in the mall study summary
demonstrates that we can implant elaborate memories of a made-up event that never happened
describe how they tested the lost in the mall study
-Loftus + her colleagues asked the relatives of 24 participants to describe events that they experienced in childhood -> they presented the participants with a book that contained the details of 3 events reported along with a fourth that they verified never occurred, being lost in a mall as a child -> some participants claimed to distinctly remember being lost in a mall as a child
-even when researchers have told participants they implanted the memories, many continue to insist that the memories are genuine
-using suggestive questions/statements, researchers have successfully implanted memories
distributed vs massed study
spreading out study time; review notes + textbook in increments rather than cramming
testing effect
put down what you’ve read + test yourself frequently on the material
elaborative rehearsal
connect new knowledge with existing knowledge rather than simply memorizing facts or names
-work to process ideas deeply/meaningfully + avoid taking notes word for word from instructor’s lectures/slides
-try capturing the info in your own words + using other concepts from the course
mnemonic learning
the more reminders/cues you can connect from your knowledge base to new material, the more likely you are to recall new material
