Chapter 8: Thinking, Reasoning, + Language Flashcards
thinking
any mental activity or processing of information
cognitive misers
investing as little energy as possible unless it’s necessary to do so
congitive misers use a variety of ____
heuristics
heuristics
mental shortcuts, to increase our thinking efficiency
function of cognitive misers
-draw inferences that provide mental shortcuts many times a day + mostly they are right
-simplify what we attend to + keep the information we need for decision-making to a manageable
-may lead us to a faculty conclusion as well
representativeness heuristic
judging the probability of an event based on how prevalent that event has been in past expereince
-reflected by stereotyping
example of representativeness heuristics
if a coin is tossed 6 times, is a sequence of HTHHTH more likely to occur than a sequence of HHHHTH? If you answer YES, you used representativeness heuristic to make the judgment
-because it seems more random
base rate
how common a behavior or characteristics is in general
example of base rate
if you think that an airplane is more dangerous than traveling to another state via a car you are disregarding base rate
availability heuristic
-estimating the likelihood of an occurence based on how easily it comes to our minds
-how available it is in our memories
example of availability heuristic
-ex.1: a teacher teaches in a way that emphasizes rote memory of concepts. It is a strategy that comes to mind easily + highly available to many teachers. But is it the best strategy
-ex.2: assuming Newberry Street is dangerous because you head about a robbery there + now you always avoid it
hindsight bias
-the “I know it all along” effect
-our tendency to overstimulate how accurately we could have predicted something happening once we know the outcome
confirmation bias
tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses/beliefs + dismiss evidence that doesn’t
belief perserverance
maintaining a belief despite new information that firmly contradicts it
what type of bias?
Tim failed general psych twice. He developed the belief that psych courses are too hard to take. He has since avoided signing up for any psych courses in college.
belief perserverance
what type of bias?
Chinese zodiac indicates that people born in dog years are high in loyalty. Ken was born in 2006, a dog year + he says: “I am a loyal person because I was born in a dog year.”
confirmation bias
what type of bias?
Jill won the lottery. Her friend says, “I knew you would get it!”
hindsight bias
top-down processing
filling in the gaps of missing information using our experience + background knowledge (perception, chunking, etc.)
concept
our knowledge + ideas about objects, actions, + characteristics that share core properties
schemas
concepts we’ve stored in memory about how certain actions, objects, + ideas relate to each other
linguistic determinism
-we cannot experience thought without language
-extreme version of top-down processing in which no ideas can be generated without linguistic knowledge
evidence against linguistic determinism
-children can perform many complex cognitive tasks long before they can talk about them
-language areas become activated when people read but those brain regions aren’t especially active during other cognitive tasks, such as spatial test + visual imagery
linguistic relativity
emphasizes that characteristics of language shape our thought processes
another name for linguistic relativity
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
linguistic determinism or linguistic relativity?
“I did not know that I am. I lived in a world that was a no-world…I did not know that I knew anything or that I lived or acted or desired. I had neither will nor intellect.”
linguistic determinism
linguistic determinism or linguistic relativity?
The language of the Dani people has words for dark + bright, but not for individual colors. However, Dani people can distinguish colors just as we do.
linguistic relativity
decision-making
the process of selecting among a set of possible alternatives
small, daily decisions
often made quickly, implicitly
larger decisions
often more explicit, involve more analysis of pros/cons
system 1 thinking
rapid + intuitive, go with the gut feeling
system 2 thinking
slow + analytical, evaluating scientific claims, business negotiation, decision management
framing
the way a question is formulated which can influence the decisions people make
2 examples of framing
-proposing the risk of losing 10 out of 100 lives vs the opportunity to save 90 out of 100 lives
-advertising beef that is 95% lean vs 5% fat
problem solving
generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal
-breaking down into subproblems
-drawing analogies between 2 distinct topics to solve problems with similar structures (airplane vs bird)
algorithm
step-by-step learned procedure used to solve a problem
distributed cognition
multiple minds work together, brainstorming
salience of surface similarities
the tendency to focus on the surface-level properties of a problem + try to solve problems in the same way we solved others with similar surface characteristics
mental set
the phenomenon of becoming stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhibiting our ability to generate alternatives
functional fixedness
difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for 1 purpose can be used for another
language
largely an arbitrary system of communication that combines symbols (words, gestural signs, etc.) in rule-based ways to create meaning
onomatopoeia
words that resemble the sounds to which they refer
-buzz, meow, beep, etc.
describe the words for mother + father
-mother: always starts with m or n
-father: always starts with b, p, or d
phonesthemes
clusters of semantically related words that share common sound sequences
-sneeze, sniff, snore, snort, etc.
sound symbolism
across languages the fact that certain speech sounds seem to be associated with particular meanings
language is highly ____ + ____
practiced + automatic
2 crucial functions of language
-transmission of information
-social + emotional function
phonemes
categories of sounds our vocal apparatus produces
morphemes
-smallest meaningful units of speech
-convey information about semantics
syntax
grammatical rules that govern how words are composed into meaningful strings
extralinguistic information
elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language but are critical to interpreting its meaning
semantics
meaning derived from words + sentences
dialect
language variation used by a group of people who share geographic proximity or ethnic background
are dialects distinct language?
no
are dialects errors in pronunciation or grammar?
no
dialects have _____
consistent syntactic rules that may differ from the mainstream dialect
bilingual
proficient + fluent at speaking + comprehending 2 distinct languages
metalinguistic
awareness of how language is structured + used
Sir Francis Galton
intelligence is the byproduct of sensory capacity
according to Galton:
where does most of our knowledge come from
senses, especially vision + hearing
according to Galton:
what should happen to people with superior sensory capacities, such as better eyesight?
they should acquire more knowledge than other people will
according to Galton:
does 1 exceptional sense like heightened hearing correlate with the other exceptional senses like heightened vision?
no
according to Galton:
are measures of sensory ability highly correlated with overall intelligence?
no
reaction time
the speed of responding to a stimulus
correlation of intelligence + reaction time
negative moderate correlation
(-0.3 to -0.4)
working memory is closely related to ____
STM reflecting our ability to juggle multiple bits of information in our minds at the same time
example of working memory
recall a list of numbers while figuring out the meaning of a proverb
correlation between intelligence + memory
moderate correlation
(about 0.5)
Bivet + Simon
-developed the 1st intelligence test
-argued that intelligence consists of higher mental processes like reasoning, understanding, + judgement
according to experts TODAY:
intelligence is related to ____
abstract thinking
abstract thinking
the capacity to understand novel + hypothetical concepts
according to experts TODAY:
intelligence entails…
the ability to learn, especially when mastering complex skills
according to experts TODAY:
how well we perform on a given mental task depends on what?
-our general smarts (g)
-our particular skills in narrow domains (s)
general intelligence (g)
hypothetical factor that accounts for overall difference in intellect among people
specific abilities (s)
particular ability level in a narrow domain
fluid intelligence
the capacity to learn new ways of solving problems
example of fluid intelligence
trying to solve a puzzle we’ve never seen
crystallized intelligence
accumulated knowledge of the world acquired over time
fluid or crystallized intelligence?
which is more likely related to g?
fluid intelligence
example of crystallized intelligence
answering questions like “what’s the capital of Italy?”
fluid or crystallized intelligence?
which is more likely to decline with age?
fluid intelligence
fluid or crystallized intelligence?
which is more moderately + positively linked with openness to experience?
crystallized intelligence
multiple intelligences
-people vary markedly in their ability levels across different domains of intellectual skill
-the different intelligences can be isolated from one another in studies of people with brain damage
what should different intelligence help organisms with?
to survive or make it easier for them to meet future mates
describe the model of Gardner’s Frames of Mind
vague + difficult to test
triarchic theory of successful intelligence
-the existence of 3 largely distinct intelligence
-2 of them are unrepresented in standrad IQ tets
-has yet to demonstrate that practical intelligence is independent of g; it could be 1 specialized subtype of g
brain size correlates with intellgience across/within species
across species
brain volume correlates positively/negatively with measured general intelligence to a certain degree
positively
-more for verbal than for spatial abilities
where is intelligence located in the brain?
in the density of neural connections between prefrontal cortex + other brain regions
parieto-frontal integration theory
intelligence best explained by a network of interconnections between the parietal + prefrontal cortex, also involving the temporal + occipital lobes (the coordination across areas of the cortex)
frontal lobe
for planning impulse control, STM
parietal lobe
for spatial abilities
mental age
the age corresponding to the average person’s performance on an intelligence test
IQ
intelligence quotient
-systematic means of quantifying differences among people in their intelligence
Lewis Terman
established a set of norms, baseline scores in the general population from which we can compare each individual’s score
IQ test associated with Lewis Terman
Stanford-Binet IQ test
Wilhelm Stern
invented the formula for intelligence quotient IQ
-divide mental age by chronological age
-multiply the resulting # by 100
modern researchers on calculating IQ
almost all rely on the statistical called deviation IQ- the expression of a person’s IQ relative to his/her same-aged peers
eugenics movement
misuses + abuses of IQ testing in the early 20th century
commonly used adult IQ tests today
-Stanford-Binet IQ
-Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS)
commonly used childhood IQ tests
-Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC)
-Wechsler primary + preschool scale of intelligence (WPPSI)
what tests are adapted from WAIS (Wechsler adult intelligence scale)?
-Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC)
-Wechsler primary + preschool scale of intelligence (WPPSI)
culture-fair IQ test
Raven’s progressive matricies
Raven’s progressive matrices
a measure of intelligence, especially fluid intelligence consisting of abstract-reasoning items that don’t depend on language
IQ test for very young children
the sensory abilities
IQ test for older children + beyond
abstract reasoning
higher infant speed of habituation = higher/lower IQs later on
higher IQs later
concurrent validity
how well a new test compares to a well-established test
-strong
predictive validity
how likely it is for test scores to predict future performance
-moderate
The Flynn Effect
-increased test sophistication
-increased complexity of the modern world
-better nutrition
-changes at home + school
when does intellectual disability onset
prior to adulthood
IQ considered intellectual disability
IQ < 70
4 categories of intellectual disability
-mild; educable
-moderate; trainable
-severe
-profound
severe intellectual disability forms due to what
genetic mutations
birth accidents
prevalence of intellectual disability
-about 1% in the US, mostly males
-at least 85% of the 1% of people with intellectual disability are mild
2 most common genetic conditions of intellectual disability
-fragile X syndrome due to mutation on the X chromosome
-down syndrome due to an extra copy of chromosome 21; “mosaics”
genetic influences on IQ from family studies
-examine the extent to which a trait “runs” or goes together in intact families
-doesn’t distinguish the effects of genes from those of the environment
-IQ correlations in 1st degree > 2nd degree > 3rd degree relatives
genetic influences on IQ from twin studies
-help disentangle the effect of nature from those of nurture
-IQ correlation: identical/monozygotic (r = 0.7, 0.8); fraternal/dizygotic twins (r = 0.3, 0.4)
-identical twin IQ correlations always far less than perfect (r < 1) indicating environmental influences
genetic influences on IQ from adoption studies
-help examine the extent to which children adopted into new homes resemble their adoptive vs biological parents
-can separate environmental from genetic effects on IQ
-children from deprived environments show IQ increase when adopted in homes of more enriched environments
-IQ of adopted children tend to be similar to the IQs of their biological parents
is intellgience due to 1 or few genes?
no
heritability
not a fixed number, doesn’t measure whether intelligence is inherited, only the extent to which individual differences in the trait are inherited
heritability coefficient
0 = no genetic influence
1 = heredity as the only influence
within-group heritability
the extent to which the individual differences of a trait like IQ is heritable within groups
-such as women or Asian Americans
between-group heritability
the extent to which the difference in this trait between groups is heritabitable
-such as men + women
test bias
a test that predicts outcomes (grades, occupational success) better in 1 group than in another
stereotype threat
the fear that we may confirm a negative group stereotype
race + ethnicity are social/biological categories?
social categories
do IQ tests show racial testing bias?
no
women/men tend to do better on verbal tasks
women
women/men tend to do better on spatial tasks
men
what does research suggest about sex difference in IQ?
little, if any, overall average sex difference in IQ between men + women
men/women are more variable in their IQ scores
men
emotional intelligence (EQ)
the ability to understand our own emotions + those of others, + to apply this information to our daily lives
grit
predicts academic achievement above + beyond IQ
perserverance
the willingness to persist in efforts despite frustrations + failures
-deep-seated passion to achieve one’s goals
