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Psychology > Chapter 8: Thinking, Reasoning, + Language > Flashcards

Chapter 8: Thinking, Reasoning, + Language Flashcards

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1
Q

thinking

A

any mental activity or processing of information

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2
Q

cognitive misers

A

investing as little energy as possible unless it’s necessary to do so

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3
Q

congitive misers use a variety of ____

A

heuristics

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4
Q

heuristics

A

mental shortcuts, to increase our thinking efficiency

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5
Q

function of cognitive misers

A

-draw inferences that provide mental shortcuts many times a day + mostly they are right
-simplify what we attend to + keep the information we need for decision-making to a manageable
-may lead us to a faculty conclusion as well

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6
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

judging the probability of an event based on how prevalent that event has been in past expereince
-reflected by stereotyping

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7
Q

example of representativeness heuristics

A

if a coin is tossed 6 times, is a sequence of HTHHTH more likely to occur than a sequence of HHHHTH? If you answer YES, you used representativeness heuristic to make the judgment

-because it seems more random

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8
Q

base rate

A

how common a behavior or characteristics is in general

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9
Q

example of base rate

A

if you think that an airplane is more dangerous than traveling to another state via a car you are disregarding base rate

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10
Q

availability heuristic

A

-estimating the likelihood of an occurence based on how easily it comes to our minds
-how available it is in our memories

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11
Q

example of availability heuristic

A

-ex.1: a teacher teaches in a way that emphasizes rote memory of concepts. It is a strategy that comes to mind easily + highly available to many teachers. But is it the best strategy

-ex.2: assuming Newberry Street is dangerous because you head about a robbery there + now you always avoid it

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12
Q

hindsight bias

A

-the “I know it all along” effect
-our tendency to overstimulate how accurately we could have predicted something happening once we know the outcome

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13
Q

confirmation bias

A

tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses/beliefs + dismiss evidence that doesn’t

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14
Q

belief perserverance

A

maintaining a belief despite new information that firmly contradicts it

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15
Q

what type of bias?

Tim failed general psych twice. He developed the belief that psych courses are too hard to take. He has since avoided signing up for any psych courses in college.

A

belief perserverance

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16
Q

what type of bias?

Chinese zodiac indicates that people born in dog years are high in loyalty. Ken was born in 2006, a dog year + he says: “I am a loyal person because I was born in a dog year.”

A

confirmation bias

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17
Q

what type of bias?

Jill won the lottery. Her friend says, “I knew you would get it!”

A

hindsight bias

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18
Q

top-down processing

A

filling in the gaps of missing information using our experience + background knowledge (perception, chunking, etc.)

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19
Q

concept

A

our knowledge + ideas about objects, actions, + characteristics that share core properties

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20
Q

schemas

A

concepts we’ve stored in memory about how certain actions, objects, + ideas relate to each other

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21
Q

linguistic determinism

A

-we cannot experience thought without language
-extreme version of top-down processing in which no ideas can be generated without linguistic knowledge

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22
Q

evidence against linguistic determinism

A

-children can perform many complex cognitive tasks long before they can talk about them
-language areas become activated when people read but those brain regions aren’t especially active during other cognitive tasks, such as spatial test + visual imagery

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23
Q

linguistic relativity

A

emphasizes that characteristics of language shape our thought processes

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24
Q

another name for linguistic relativity

A

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

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25
Q

linguistic determinism or linguistic relativity?

“I did not know that I am. I lived in a world that was a no-world…I did not know that I knew anything or that I lived or acted or desired. I had neither will nor intellect.”

A

linguistic determinism

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26
Q

linguistic determinism or linguistic relativity?

The language of the Dani people has words for dark + bright, but not for individual colors. However, Dani people can distinguish colors just as we do.

A

linguistic relativity

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27
Q

decision-making

A

the process of selecting among a set of possible alternatives

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28
Q

small, daily decisions

A

often made quickly, implicitly

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29
Q

larger decisions

A

often more explicit, involve more analysis of pros/cons

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30
Q

system 1 thinking

A

rapid + intuitive, go with the gut feeling

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31
Q

system 2 thinking

A

slow + analytical, evaluating scientific claims, business negotiation, decision management

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32
Q

framing

A

the way a question is formulated which can influence the decisions people make

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33
Q

2 examples of framing

A

-proposing the risk of losing 10 out of 100 lives vs the opportunity to save 90 out of 100 lives

-advertising beef that is 95% lean vs 5% fat

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34
Q

problem solving

A

generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal

-breaking down into subproblems
-drawing analogies between 2 distinct topics to solve problems with similar structures (airplane vs bird)

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35
Q

algorithm

A

step-by-step learned procedure used to solve a problem

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36
Q

distributed cognition

A

multiple minds work together, brainstorming

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37
Q

salience of surface similarities

A

the tendency to focus on the surface-level properties of a problem + try to solve problems in the same way we solved others with similar surface characteristics

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38
Q

mental set

A

the phenomenon of becoming stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhibiting our ability to generate alternatives

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39
Q

functional fixedness

A

difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for 1 purpose can be used for another

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40
Q

language

A

largely an arbitrary system of communication that combines symbols (words, gestural signs, etc.) in rule-based ways to create meaning

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41
Q

onomatopoeia

A

words that resemble the sounds to which they refer
-buzz, meow, beep, etc.

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42
Q

describe the words for mother + father

A

-mother: always starts with m or n
-father: always starts with b, p, or d

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43
Q

phonesthemes

A

clusters of semantically related words that share common sound sequences
-sneeze, sniff, snore, snort, etc.

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44
Q

sound symbolism

A

across languages the fact that certain speech sounds seem to be associated with particular meanings

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45
Q

language is highly ____ + ____

A

practiced + automatic

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46
Q

2 crucial functions of language

A

-transmission of information
-social + emotional function

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47
Q

phonemes

A

categories of sounds our vocal apparatus produces

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48
Q

morphemes

A

-smallest meaningful units of speech
-convey information about semantics

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49
Q

syntax

A

grammatical rules that govern how words are composed into meaningful strings

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50
Q

extralinguistic information

A

elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language but are critical to interpreting its meaning

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51
Q

semantics

A

meaning derived from words + sentences

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52
Q

dialect

A

language variation used by a group of people who share geographic proximity or ethnic background

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53
Q

are dialects distinct language?

A

no

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54
Q

are dialects errors in pronunciation or grammar?

A

no

55
Q

dialects have _____

A

consistent syntactic rules that may differ from the mainstream dialect

56
Q

bilingual

A

proficient + fluent at speaking + comprehending 2 distinct languages

57
Q

metalinguistic

A

awareness of how language is structured + used

58
Q

Sir Francis Galton

A

intelligence is the byproduct of sensory capacity

59
Q

according to Galton:

where does most of our knowledge come from

A

senses, especially vision + hearing

60
Q

according to Galton:

what should happen to people with superior sensory capacities, such as better eyesight?

A

they should acquire more knowledge than other people will

61
Q

according to Galton:

does 1 exceptional sense like heightened hearing correlate with the other exceptional senses like heightened vision?

A

no

62
Q

according to Galton:

are measures of sensory ability highly correlated with overall intelligence?

A

no

63
Q

reaction time

A

the speed of responding to a stimulus

64
Q

correlation of intelligence + reaction time

A

negative moderate correlation
(-0.3 to -0.4)

65
Q

working memory is closely related to ____

A

STM reflecting our ability to juggle multiple bits of information in our minds at the same time

66
Q

example of working memory

A

recall a list of numbers while figuring out the meaning of a proverb

67
Q

correlation between intelligence + memory

A

moderate correlation
(about 0.5)

68
Q

Bivet + Simon

A

-developed the 1st intelligence test
-argued that intelligence consists of higher mental processes like reasoning, understanding, + judgement

69
Q

according to experts TODAY:

intelligence is related to ____

A

abstract thinking

70
Q

abstract thinking

A

the capacity to understand novel + hypothetical concepts

71
Q

according to experts TODAY:

intelligence entails…

A

the ability to learn, especially when mastering complex skills

72
Q

according to experts TODAY:

how well we perform on a given mental task depends on what?

A

-our general smarts (g)
-our particular skills in narrow domains (s)

73
Q

general intelligence (g)

A

hypothetical factor that accounts for overall difference in intellect among people

74
Q

specific abilities (s)

A

particular ability level in a narrow domain

75
Q

fluid intelligence

A

the capacity to learn new ways of solving problems

76
Q

example of fluid intelligence

A

trying to solve a puzzle we’ve never seen

76
Q

crystallized intelligence

A

accumulated knowledge of the world acquired over time

76
Q

fluid or crystallized intelligence?

which is more likely related to g?

A

fluid intelligence

76
Q

example of crystallized intelligence

A

answering questions like “what’s the capital of Italy?”

76
Q

fluid or crystallized intelligence?

which is more likely to decline with age?

A

fluid intelligence

77
Q

fluid or crystallized intelligence?

which is more moderately + positively linked with openness to experience?

A

crystallized intelligence

78
Q

multiple intelligences

A

-people vary markedly in their ability levels across different domains of intellectual skill
-the different intelligences can be isolated from one another in studies of people with brain damage

79
Q

what should different intelligence help organisms with?

A

to survive or make it easier for them to meet future mates

80
Q

describe the model of Gardner’s Frames of Mind

A

vague + difficult to test

81
Q

triarchic theory of successful intelligence

A

-the existence of 3 largely distinct intelligence
-2 of them are unrepresented in standrad IQ tets
-has yet to demonstrate that practical intelligence is independent of g; it could be 1 specialized subtype of g

82
Q

brain size correlates with intellgience across/within species

A

across species

83
Q

brain volume correlates positively/negatively with measured general intelligence to a certain degree

A

positively
-more for verbal than for spatial abilities

84
Q

where is intelligence located in the brain?

A

in the density of neural connections between prefrontal cortex + other brain regions

85
Q

parieto-frontal integration theory

A

intelligence best explained by a network of interconnections between the parietal + prefrontal cortex, also involving the temporal + occipital lobes (the coordination across areas of the cortex)

86
Q

frontal lobe

A

for planning impulse control, STM

87
Q

parietal lobe

A

for spatial abilities

88
Q

mental age

A

the age corresponding to the average person’s performance on an intelligence test

89
Q

IQ

A

intelligence quotient
-systematic means of quantifying differences among people in their intelligence

90
Q

Lewis Terman

A

established a set of norms, baseline scores in the general population from which we can compare each individual’s score

91
Q

IQ test associated with Lewis Terman

A

Stanford-Binet IQ test

92
Q

Wilhelm Stern

A

invented the formula for intelligence quotient IQ
-divide mental age by chronological age
-multiply the resulting # by 100

93
Q

modern researchers on calculating IQ

A

almost all rely on the statistical called deviation IQ- the expression of a person’s IQ relative to his/her same-aged peers

94
Q

eugenics movement

A

misuses + abuses of IQ testing in the early 20th century

95
Q

commonly used adult IQ tests today

A

-Stanford-Binet IQ
-Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS)

96
Q

commonly used childhood IQ tests

A

-Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC)
-Wechsler primary + preschool scale of intelligence (WPPSI)

97
Q

what tests are adapted from WAIS (Wechsler adult intelligence scale)?

A

-Wechsler intelligence scale for children (WISC)
-Wechsler primary + preschool scale of intelligence (WPPSI)

98
Q

culture-fair IQ test

A

Raven’s progressive matricies

99
Q

Raven’s progressive matrices

A

a measure of intelligence, especially fluid intelligence consisting of abstract-reasoning items that don’t depend on language

100
Q

IQ test for very young children

A

the sensory abilities

101
Q

IQ test for older children + beyond

A

abstract reasoning

101
Q

higher infant speed of habituation = higher/lower IQs later on

A

higher IQs later

102
Q

concurrent validity

A

how well a new test compares to a well-established test
-strong

102
Q

predictive validity

A

how likely it is for test scores to predict future performance
-moderate

103
Q

The Flynn Effect

A

-increased test sophistication
-increased complexity of the modern world
-better nutrition
-changes at home + school

104
Q

when does intellectual disability onset

A

prior to adulthood

105
Q

IQ considered intellectual disability

A

IQ < 70

106
Q

4 categories of intellectual disability

A

-mild; educable
-moderate; trainable
-severe
-profound

107
Q

severe intellectual disability forms due to what

A

genetic mutations
birth accidents

108
Q

prevalence of intellectual disability

A

-about 1% in the US, mostly males
-at least 85% of the 1% of people with intellectual disability are mild

109
Q

2 most common genetic conditions of intellectual disability

A

-fragile X syndrome due to mutation on the X chromosome
-down syndrome due to an extra copy of chromosome 21; “mosaics”

110
Q

genetic influences on IQ from family studies

A

-examine the extent to which a trait “runs” or goes together in intact families
-doesn’t distinguish the effects of genes from those of the environment
-IQ correlations in 1st degree > 2nd degree > 3rd degree relatives

111
Q

genetic influences on IQ from twin studies

A

-help disentangle the effect of nature from those of nurture
-IQ correlation: identical/monozygotic (r = 0.7, 0.8); fraternal/dizygotic twins (r = 0.3, 0.4)
-identical twin IQ correlations always far less than perfect (r < 1) indicating environmental influences

112
Q

genetic influences on IQ from adoption studies

A

-help examine the extent to which children adopted into new homes resemble their adoptive vs biological parents
-can separate environmental from genetic effects on IQ
-children from deprived environments show IQ increase when adopted in homes of more enriched environments
-IQ of adopted children tend to be similar to the IQs of their biological parents

113
Q

is intellgience due to 1 or few genes?

A

no

114
Q

heritability

A

not a fixed number, doesn’t measure whether intelligence is inherited, only the extent to which individual differences in the trait are inherited

115
Q

heritability coefficient

A

0 = no genetic influence
1 = heredity as the only influence

116
Q

within-group heritability

A

the extent to which the individual differences of a trait like IQ is heritable within groups
-such as women or Asian Americans

117
Q

between-group heritability

A

the extent to which the difference in this trait between groups is heritabitable
-such as men + women

118
Q

test bias

A

a test that predicts outcomes (grades, occupational success) better in 1 group than in another

119
Q

stereotype threat

A

the fear that we may confirm a negative group stereotype

120
Q

race + ethnicity are social/biological categories?

A

social categories

121
Q

do IQ tests show racial testing bias?

A

no

122
Q

women/men tend to do better on verbal tasks

A

women

123
Q

women/men tend to do better on spatial tasks

A

men

124
Q

what does research suggest about sex difference in IQ?

A

little, if any, overall average sex difference in IQ between men + women

125
Q

men/women are more variable in their IQ scores

A

men

126
Q

emotional intelligence (EQ)

A

the ability to understand our own emotions + those of others, + to apply this information to our daily lives

127
Q

grit

A

predicts academic achievement above + beyond IQ

128
Q

perserverance

A

the willingness to persist in efforts despite frustrations + failures
-deep-seated passion to achieve one’s goals

Psychology (15 decks)

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