Chapter 8: Thinking, Reasoning, + Language Flashcards
thinking
any mental activity or processing of information
cognitive misers
investing as little energy as possible unless it’s necessary to do so
congitive misers use a variety of ____
heuristics
heuristics
mental shortcuts, to increase our thinking efficiency
function of cognitive misers
-draw inferences that provide mental shortcuts many times a day + mostly they are right
-simplify what we attend to + keep the information we need for decision-making to a manageable
-may lead us to a faculty conclusion as well
representativeness heuristic
judging the probability of an event based on how prevalent that event has been in past expereince
-reflected by stereotyping
example of representativeness heuristics
if a coin is tossed 6 times, is a sequence of HTHHTH more likely to occur than a sequence of HHHHTH? If you answer YES, you used representativeness heuristic to make the judgment
-because it seems more random
base rate
how common a behavior or characteristics is in general
example of base rate
if you think that an airplane is more dangerous than traveling to another state via a car you are disregarding base rate
availability heuristic
-estimating the likelihood of an occurence based on how easily it comes to our minds
-how available it is in our memories
example of availability heuristic
-ex.1: a teacher teaches in a way that emphasizes rote memory of concepts. It is a strategy that comes to mind easily + highly available to many teachers. But is it the best strategy
-ex.2: assuming Newberry Street is dangerous because you head about a robbery there + now you always avoid it
hindsight bias
-the “I know it all along” effect
-our tendency to overstimulate how accurately we could have predicted something happening once we know the outcome
confirmation bias
tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses/beliefs + dismiss evidence that doesn’t
belief perserverance
maintaining a belief despite new information that firmly contradicts it
what type of bias?
Tim failed general psych twice. He developed the belief that psych courses are too hard to take. He has since avoided signing up for any psych courses in college.
belief perserverance
what type of bias?
Chinese zodiac indicates that people born in dog years are high in loyalty. Ken was born in 2006, a dog year + he says: “I am a loyal person because I was born in a dog year.”
confirmation bias
what type of bias?
Jill won the lottery. Her friend says, “I knew you would get it!”
hindsight bias
top-down processing
filling in the gaps of missing information using our experience + background knowledge (perception, chunking, etc.)
concept
our knowledge + ideas about objects, actions, + characteristics that share core properties
schemas
concepts we’ve stored in memory about how certain actions, objects, + ideas relate to each other
linguistic determinism
-we cannot experience thought without language
-extreme version of top-down processing in which no ideas can be generated without linguistic knowledge
evidence against linguistic determinism
-children can perform many complex cognitive tasks long before they can talk about them
-language areas become activated when people read but those brain regions aren’t especially active during other cognitive tasks, such as spatial test + visual imagery
linguistic relativity
emphasizes that characteristics of language shape our thought processes
another name for linguistic relativity
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
linguistic determinism or linguistic relativity?
“I did not know that I am. I lived in a world that was a no-world…I did not know that I knew anything or that I lived or acted or desired. I had neither will nor intellect.”
linguistic determinism
linguistic determinism or linguistic relativity?
The language of the Dani people has words for dark + bright, but not for individual colors. However, Dani people can distinguish colors just as we do.
linguistic relativity
decision-making
the process of selecting among a set of possible alternatives
small, daily decisions
often made quickly, implicitly
larger decisions
often more explicit, involve more analysis of pros/cons
system 1 thinking
rapid + intuitive, go with the gut feeling
system 2 thinking
slow + analytical, evaluating scientific claims, business negotiation, decision management
framing
the way a question is formulated which can influence the decisions people make
2 examples of framing
-proposing the risk of losing 10 out of 100 lives vs the opportunity to save 90 out of 100 lives
-advertising beef that is 95% lean vs 5% fat
problem solving
generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal
-breaking down into subproblems
-drawing analogies between 2 distinct topics to solve problems with similar structures (airplane vs bird)
algorithm
step-by-step learned procedure used to solve a problem
distributed cognition
multiple minds work together, brainstorming
salience of surface similarities
the tendency to focus on the surface-level properties of a problem + try to solve problems in the same way we solved others with similar surface characteristics
mental set
the phenomenon of becoming stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhibiting our ability to generate alternatives
functional fixedness
difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for 1 purpose can be used for another
language
largely an arbitrary system of communication that combines symbols (words, gestural signs, etc.) in rule-based ways to create meaning
onomatopoeia
words that resemble the sounds to which they refer
-buzz, meow, beep, etc.
describe the words for mother + father
-mother: always starts with m or n
-father: always starts with b, p, or d
phonesthemes
clusters of semantically related words that share common sound sequences
-sneeze, sniff, snore, snort, etc.
sound symbolism
across languages the fact that certain speech sounds seem to be associated with particular meanings
language is highly ____ + ____
practiced + automatic
2 crucial functions of language
-transmission of information
-social + emotional function
phonemes
categories of sounds our vocal apparatus produces
morphemes
-smallest meaningful units of speech
-convey information about semantics
syntax
grammatical rules that govern how words are composed into meaningful strings
extralinguistic information
elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of language but are critical to interpreting its meaning
semantics
meaning derived from words + sentences
dialect
language variation used by a group of people who share geographic proximity or ethnic background
are dialects distinct language?
no