Chapter 7 Flashcards
Which of the following are presented in the correct order when describing some of the structures that sound waves travel through as they pass from the outer ear to the inner ear?
pinna, tympanic membrane, oval window, cochlea
Vibrations in the fluid of the cochlea causes:
hair cells to displace.
What is the major problem for the frequency theory of sound perception?
Neurons cannot respond as quickly as the theory requires.
Which of the following would be most impaired with damage to the vestibular senses?
visually tracking an object while dancing
Along each strip of somatosensory cortex, different sub-areas respond to:
different areas of the body.
What process is predicted by the gate theory of pain?
Non-pain information can inhibit pain information.
A mild pain stimulus is associated with a release of:
glutamate
Each receptor responds to a wide range of stimuli and contributes to the perception of each of them. This type of coding is referred to as:
across-fiber
After eating salty pretzels, the salty potato chips will taste less salty because of:
adaptation
How is olfactory information coded in receptor cells?
There are hundreds of types of receptor molecules, each responsive to a different chemical.
Periodic compressions air, water, or other media
sound waves
the intensity of a sound wave (i.e., measured height a sound wave reaches)- measured in decibels how high
amplitude
the psychological experience of amplitude refers to perception of the sound wave
Loudness
The # of compressions per sound- measured in Hertz (Hz , cycles per second); related to the pitch
frequency
the psychologial experience of frequency
pitch
What about the range of frequencies in children?
Children hear higher frequencies than adults; have ability to recognize high frequencies diminishes w/age and exposure to loud noises.
Includes the pinna; the structure of flesh & cartilage attached to each side of the head – helps us locate the source of sound & Responsible for: altering the reflection of sound waves into the middle ear from the outer ear
outer ear
aka outer ear
pinna
i.e., eardrum
tympanic membrain
a membrane in the inner ear
Oval window
Tympanic membrane connects to 3 tiny bones that transmit vibrations to the oval window
Malleus (hammer)
Incus (anvil)
Stapes (stirrup)
snail-shaped structure in inner ear containing three long fluid-filled tunnels
Cochlea
two main ways of coding the sensory info
Frequency theory and place theory
basilar membrane resembles strings of a piano – each area along membrane is tuned to a specific frequency hair cells sensitive to only one specific frequency of sound wave; like Piano strings
Place theory
downfall of place theory
the various parts are bounded together too tightly (not like piano strings)
basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with a sound, causing auditory nerve axons to produce action potentials at the same frequency (e.g., 50 Hz sound causes 50 action potentials/sec.) in auditory nerve
Frequency theory
Downfall of frequency theory
certain amount of time before something can happen again (@ least 1/1000 of a sec) REFRACTORY PERIOD
auditory nerve as a whole produces volleys of impulses for sounds up to about 4,000 per sec., even though no individual axon approaches that frequency
Volley principle
Highest frequency sounds
vibrate hair cells at bottom (why old ppl can’t hear0
lower frequency sounds
vibrate toward the apex
impaired detection of frequency changes
tone deafness
tone deafness
amusia
perfect pitch
absolute pitch
the ability to hear a note and ID it
absolute pitch
Main determinant of absolute pitch
is early and extensive musical training
the destination for most info from the auditory system
primary auditory cortex (area A1)
sensitive to pattern of soun
“what” pathway
Where pathway
location of sound
includes areas important for detecting visual motion and motion of sounds; contains area MT; Allows detection of the motion of sound
superior temporal cortex
damage to the are V1
partial blind
damage to are A1
can be fine
Cortex provides map of sounds –
a tonotopic map
middle-ear deafness
conductive deafness
inner-ear deafness
nerve deafeness
o Results from damage to the cochlea, the hair cells, or the auditory nerve
o Can vary in degree
o Can be confined to one part of the cochlea
Ppl can hear only certain frequencies
nerve deaf.
o Occurs if bones of the middle ear fail to transmit sound waves properly to the cochlea; caused by disease, infections, or tumorous bone growth
o Can be corrected by surgery or hearing aids that amplify the stimulus
o Normal cochlea and normal auditory nerve allows ppl to hear their own voice clearly (b/c of vibrations w/your own bones)
conductive deafness
ringing in the ears
tinnitus
depends upon comparing the responses of the 2 ears
Sound Localization
helps you locate where the sound is coming from
sound shadow
most useful for localizing sounds with a sudden onset
time of arrival
vestibular organ consists of
saccule
utricle
3 semicircular canals
calcium carbonate particles that lie next to the hair cells
otoliths
filled with jellylike substance and lined with hair cells that are activated when the head moves
o Action potentials travel to the brain stem and cerebellum
3 semicircular canals
the sensation of the body and its movements
somatosensory system
- Includes discriminative touch, deep pressure, cold, warmth, pain, itch, tickle, and the position and movement of the joints
somatosensory receptors
a type of touch receptor that detects sudden displacement or high-frequency vibrations on the skin
Pacinian corpuscles
may be a simple bare neuron ending (e.g., many pain receptors), an elaborated neuron ending (Ruffini endings and Meissner’s corpuscles), or bare ending surrounded by other cells that modify its function
touch receptors
Stimulation of touch receptor opens sodium channels in the axon
starts an action potential
Each spinal nerve innervates a limited area of the body
dermatome
THE SKIN AREA CONNECTED TO OR INNERVATED BY A SINGLE SENSORY SPINAL NERVE
dermatome
What is pain and what is its purpose?
PAIN IS THE EXPERIENCE EVOKED BY A HARMFUL STIMULUS, DIRECTS OUR ATTENTION, AND HOLDS IT
Pain sensation begins with a
bare nerve ending
capsaicin stimulates receptors
a chemical found in hot pepper
thicker and faster axons
sharp pain
thinner and slower axons
dull pain (post surgical pain)
mild pain
glutamate
stronger pain
both glutamate and substance P
processed by the cingulate cortex
sympathetic pain
systems that respond to opiate drugs and similar chemicals
Opiod mechanism
discovered that opiates bind to receptors found mostly in spinal cord and the periaqueductal gray area of the midbrain
- Opiate receptors act by blocking release of substance P
pert and snyder
Implication of discovering opiate receptors –
first evidence that opioids act on nervous system rather than injured tissue
body’s own natural pain killers
endorphins
spinal cord neurons that receive messages from pain receptors also receive messages from touch receptors and from axons descending from the brain
Gate theory
how does morphine work?
block slower, duller pain (after surgery)
- General principle of gate theory:
non pain stimuli modify the intensity of pain
Stub toe? Massage it to help pain!
a drug or other procedures w/no pharmacological effects
placebos
Do placebos decrease pain just by increasing relaxations?
Placebos relieve pain partly by increasing release of opiates
worsen pain by increasing anxiety
antiplacebos (nocebos)
are chemicals related to marijuana that also block certain kinds of pain
cannabinoids and capsaicin
produces painful burning sensation by releasing substance P
capsaicin
- Direct electrical stimulation of the spinal or thalamus
electrical stimulation of the nervous system
resembles physical pain in many regards; increased activity in the cingulate cortex when someone felt left out of an activity
social pain aka emotional pain
When someone has hurt feelings,
activity increases in cingulate cortex
results of mild tissue damage
skin releases histamines
2 kinds of itch
mild tissue damage
contact w/certain plants (cowhage)
each receptor responds to a limited range of stimuli, (& sends a direct line to the brain) and the meaning depends entirely on which neurons are active
label-line principle
each receptor responds to a wider range of stimuli, (& contributors to the perception of each of them) and a given response by a given axon means little except in comparison to what other axons are doing
Across-fiber pattern principle
refers to the stimulation of the taste buds, which are receptors on the tongue
taste
converge enables taste and smell to combine their influences on food selection
endopiriform cortex
o Receptors (in mammals) are in taste buds located
in papillae
structures on the surface of the tongue that contains the taste buds
papillae
Where are human adult taste buds located?
most taste buds are located along the outside edge of the tongue in humans
how many kinds of taste receptors?
4: sweet, sour, salty, and bitter
refers to reduced perception of a stimuli due to fatigue of receptors
adaptation
reduced response to one stimulus after exposure to another
cross- Adaptation
evidence suggests a 5th receptro
glutamate( as in MSG)
detects presence of sodium and permits sodium ions to cross its membrane; results in an action Potential
saltiness receptor is simple
bitter substances include a long list of dissimilar chemicals
bitter taste
branch of seventh cranial nerve
chorda tympani
taste nerves project to here; in the medulla
nucleus of the tractus solitaries
the primary taste cortex
insula
responds to touch stimulation on tongue
somatosensory cortex
taste sensitivity in women
changes w/hormone cycles; most sensitive during early prego
have higher sensitivity to all tastes and mouth sensations in general);
supertasters
sense of smell and refers to the detection and recognition of chemicals that contact the membranes inside the nose
olfaction
Olfaction plays a subtle role in social behavior
o Humans tend to prefer the smell of potential romantic partners who smell different from themselves and their family members
o Decreases the risk of inbreeding
o Increases the probability that children will have a wide range of immunities
neurons responsible for smell ; line the olfactory epithelium in the rear of the nasal passage and are the neurons responsible for smell
olfactory cells
threadlike dendrites
cilia
each olfactory cell has; extends from cell body into mucous surface of nasal passage
cilia
how many olfactory receptors do we have?
several hundred; have so many b/c there’s so many kinds of chemicals in the air
we arrange our olfactory receptors over the entire surface of the nasal passages
localization
set of receptors located near olfactory receptors; that are sensitive to pheromones; tiny in humans!
Vomeronasal organ (VNO)
chemicals released by an animal that affect behavior of other members of the same species, especially sexually
pheromones
strong synesthesia
rare; 1/2000 ppl
runs in family
weak synesthesia
do things like this all our lives
warm and cool colors
