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Biology 1406 > Chapter 6 > Flashcards

Chapter 6 Flashcards

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1
Q

All organisms are made of

A

cells

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2
Q

The cell is the

A

simplest collection of matter that can live.

They have the 7 qualities of life

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3
Q

Cell structure is correlated to

A

cellular function

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4
Q

All cells are related by their

A

descent from earlier cells.

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5
Q

Though usually too small to be seen by the unaided eye,

A

cells can be complex

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6
Q

Scientists use microscopes to

A

visualize cells to small to see with the naked eye

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7
Q

In a Light Microscope (LM),

A

visible light passes through a specimen and then through glass lenses

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8
Q

Lenses refract (bend) the light, so that

A

the image is magnified

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9
Q

Three important parameters of microscopy

A

Magnification
Resolution
Contrast

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10
Q

Magnification

A

the ratio of an object’s image size to its real size

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11
Q

Resolution

A

the measure of the clarity of the image, or the minimum distance of two distinguishable points.
(how clear you can see the image and magnify it)

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12
Q

Contrast

A

visible differences in parts of the sample

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13
Q

Light Microscopes (LMs) can magnify to about

A

1,000 times the size of the actual specimen

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14
Q

Various techniques enhance

A

contrast and enable cell components to be stained or labeled

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15
Q

Most subcellular structures, including organelles,

A

are too small to be resolved by a Light Microscope (LM)

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16
Q

Organelles

A

membrane-enclosed compartments

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17
Q

Two basic types of Electron Microscopes (EMs) that are used to study subcellular structures

A

Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEMs)

Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEMs)

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18
Q

Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEMs)

A

focus a beam of electrons onto the surface of a specimen, providing images that look 3-D.

-Allows you to see the surface!!

SURFACE (SSS)

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19
Q

Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEMs)

A

focus a beam of electrons through a specimen
-allows you to see the little things inside
internal ultrastructures

-Disadvantage: only dead specimen

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20
Q

Cell fractionation

A

takes cells apart and separates the major organelles from one another

-so you can study just the parts you’re interested in.

It starts out slow and short spins, then it ends up with fast and long spins

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21
Q

Centrifuges fractionate cells into

A

their component parts

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22
Q

Cell fractionation enables scientists to

A

determine the functions of organelles

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23
Q

Biochemistry and cytology help correlate

A

cell function with structure

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24
Q

The order the organelles fall out during Cell fractionation

A
  1. nucleus
  2. mitochondria and chloroplast
  3. microsomes
  4. ribosomes
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25
Q

The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is one of two types of cells:

A

prokaryotic or eukaryotic

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26
Q

Prokaryotic Cells

A

Domain Bacteria and Domain Archaea

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27
Q

Eukaryotic Cells

A

Kingdoms:

plants, animals, fungi, protists (protista)

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28
Q

Basic features of ALL cells

A

plasma membrane
semifluid substance called cytosol
chromosomes (carry genes. DNA)
ribosomes (make proteins)

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29
Q

Every cell needs to be able to

A

make proteins

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30
Q

Prokaryotic Cells are characterized by having

A

no nucleus
DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
no membrane-bound organelles
cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane

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31
Q

Eukaryotic Cells are characterized by having

A

DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope
membrane-bound organelles
cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus

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32
Q

Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than

A

prokaryotic cells

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33
Q

The plasma membrane is a

A

selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell

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34
Q

The general structure of a biological membrane is a

A

double laye of phospholipids

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35
Q

Metabolic requirements set upper limits on the size of

A

cells

Eukaryotic cells?

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36
Q

The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is

A

critical

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37
Q

As the surface area increases by a factor of n^2,

A

the volume increases by a factor of n^3

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38
Q

Small cells have a greater surface area relative

A

to volume.

this is how eukaryotic cells can be so big

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39
Q

Cells need enough surface area for their

A

work, metabolism.

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40
Q

All of the membranes are put together into a eukaryotic cell and that is what

A

makes the surface area so big

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41
Q

A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that partition the cell into

A

organelles

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42
Q

Organelles participate in

A

metabolism (enzymes built into their membranes)

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43
Q

Organelles provide

A

local environments for specific reactions

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44
Q

Plant and animal cells have most of the same

A

organelles

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45
Q

In animal cells but not plant cells

A

lysosomes
centrioles
flagella (in some plant sperm)

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46
Q

In plant cells but not animal cells

A

chloroplasts
central vacuole and tonoplast
cell wall
plasmodesmata

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47
Q

The nucleus contains most of the

A

DNA in a eukaryotic cell

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48
Q

The genetic instructions are

A

how a cell know what to do

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49
Q

Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to

A

make proteins

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50
Q

The nucleus and the ribosomes work

A

together in eukaryotic cells

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51
Q

Nucleus function

A

hold the DNA

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52
Q

Ribosomes function

A

make proteins

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53
Q

The nucleus contains

A

most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most conspicuous organelle

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54
Q

The nuclear envelope

A

encloses the nucleus separating it from the cytoplasm

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55
Q

The nuclear membrane is a

A

double membrane. (it folds back over)

  • membrane is continuous at the pores
  • pore complexes line the pore
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56
Q

Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules from the

A

nucleus

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57
Q

The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the

A

nuclear lamina, which is composed of protein

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58
Q

Nucleus job

A

hold DNA

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59
Q

In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units called

A

chromosomes

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60
Q

Each chromosome is composed of

A

a single DNA molecule associated with proteins

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61
Q

The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are together called

A

chromatin

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62
Q

Chromatin condenses to form discrete

A

chromosomes as a cell prepares to divide

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63
Q

The Nucleolus (not a membranous organelles) is located within the

A

nucleus and is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis

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64
Q

The nucleolus is where we

A

put together ribosomes

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65
Q

The nucleolus is located within the

A

nucleus

the dense region

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66
Q

Nucleolus function

A

make RNA to make ribosomes

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67
Q

Ribosomes are particles made of

A

ribosomal RNA and protein

-site of protein synthesis

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68
Q

Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations

A

in the cytosol
and
on the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope

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69
Q

The ribosomes that carry out protein synthesis in the cytosol are

A

free ribosomes-they float around free

-proteins for use in the cytosol

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70
Q

The ribosomes that carry out protein synthesis on the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope are

A

bound ribosomes- they are physically stuck to the thing. they will have proteins that end up outside the membrane.

-proteins for membranes, packages, or secretion

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71
Q

Ribosomes function

A 
make proteins
(important!!!)
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72
Q

Endomembrane system

A

a series of physically connected structures

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73
Q

Components of the Endomembrane system

A 
1st- Nuclear Envelope
2nd- Endoplasmic Reticulum
3rd- Golgi Apparatus
4th- Lysosomes
5th- Vacuoles
6th- Plasma Membrane

-The components go through the endomembrane system through this order

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74
Q

The components of the endomembrane system are either continuous or connected via transfer by

A

vesicles

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75
Q

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for

A

more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells

76
Q

The ER membrane is continuous with the

A

nuclear envelope

77
Q

There are two distinct regions of ER

A

Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes

Rough ER, surface is studded with ribosomes

78
Q

Functions of Smooth ER

A

-synthesizes lipids
(sex hormones, steroids, etc.)
-metabolizes carbohydrates
-detoxifies poison (liver) (alcohol)
(increased use leads to higher tolerance)
-stores calcium (takes the calcium and holds it inside if you want to get cells attention, let the calcium out.

79
Q

Smooth ER detoxifies alcohol but when

A

you havent drank alcohol in awhile, you wont have enough smooth ER anymore to get the alcohol out and detoxify

80
Q

Functions of Rough ER

A
  • Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates. (proteins with sugar on them))
  • distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes
  • is a membrane factory for the cell
  • makes proteins=main purpose/job
81
Q

glycoproteins

A

proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates.

proteins with sugar on them.

82
Q

The Golgi apparatus consists of

A

flattened membranous sacs called cisternae

83
Q

Functions of the Golgi apparatus

A
  • Modifies products of the ER
  • Manufactures certain macromolecules
  • Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles (then pops off?)
  • –Cis face (near ER)
  • –Trans face (far side)

It ships and packages.
Modifies, packaging, and shipping.

84
Q

A lysosome is a

A

membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules

85
Q

Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze

A

proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids

86
Q

Lysosomal enzymes work best in

A

the acidic environment inside the lysosome

87
Q

Lysosomes=

A

digestive
animal cells only.
its a vesicle with digestive enzymes. (package)

88
Q

Some types of cell can engulf another cell by

A

phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole

89
Q

2 ways lysosomes function

A
  • A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests the molecules
  • Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and macromolecules, a process called autophagy
  • digest food
  • recycle used up old orangelles
90
Q

Vacuoles

A

plants only

91
Q

A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several

A

vacuoles, derived from endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus

92
Q

Food vacuoles are formed by

A

phagocytosis

93
Q

Contractile vacuoles,

A

found in many freshwater protists, pump excess water out of cells.

-vacuoles fill up with water and before they explode, they pump the water out

94
Q

Central vacuoles,

A

found in many mature plant cells, hold organic compounds and water

95
Q

vacuoles look like an

A

empty spot in a cell

96
Q

The endomembrane system is a

A

complex and dynamic player in the cell’s compartmental organization

97
Q

Proteins destined for secretion are synthesized on the

A

inside of the endomembrane system.

secreted in the inside, proteins end up outside cell??

98
Q

Mitochondria

A

are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP.

Cells make ATP

99
Q

Chloroplasts,

A

found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis

important functionals

100
Q

Peroxisomes are

A

oxidative organelles

-moving electrons around in interactions

101
Q

Mitochondria and chloroplasts are NOT part of

A

the endomembrane system

102
Q

Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities with bacteria

A
  • Enveloped by a double membrane
  • Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
  • Grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells
  • 2 membranes on outside
  • has its own DNA and ribosomes
  • do what they want when they want. independent.
103
Q

The Endosymbiont theory

A
  • An early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed a nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell, which formed an endosymbiont relationship with its host
  • The host cell and endosymbiont merged into a single organism, a eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion
  • At least one of these cells may have taken up a photosynthetic prokaryote, becoming the ancestor of cells that contain chloroplasts

(this helps us describe why we have mitochondria and chloroplasts.

104
Q

Chloroplast function

A

photosynthesis

105
Q

mitochondria function

A

cellular respiration, make ATP

106
Q

Mitochondria are in nearly all

A

eukaryotic cells

107
Q

Mitochondria have a

A

smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded into cristae
(the folds/loopy thing)

108
Q

The inner membrane creates two compartments:

A

intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix

109
Q

Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the

A

mitochondrial matrix

110
Q

Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that

A

synthesize ATP

111
Q

anything that is a eukaryote has a

A

mitochondria.

this is because they all need to make energy

112
Q

Parts of mitochondria

A

outer membrane, inner membrane, intermembrane space, cristae, matrix, DNA, ribosomes

113
Q

Chloroplasts contain the green pigment

A

chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other molecules that function in photosynthesis

114
Q

Chloroplasts are found in

A

leaves and other green organs of plants and in algae

115
Q

Chloroplast structure includes

A
  • Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a granum. (a single membrane sac)
  • Stroma, the internal fluid (the dense goopy stuff)

granum- a bunch of thylakoids together

116
Q

The chloroplast is one of a group of plant organelles, called

A

plastids

117
Q

DNA and ribosomes are in the

A

stroma in the chloroplast

118
Q

Parts of Chloroplast

A

outer membrane, inner membrane, intermembrane space, thylakoid, granum, stroma, DNA, ribosomes

119
Q

Peroxisomes are

A

specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single membrane

(a sac with hydrogen peroxide in it surrounded by a single membrane

120
Q

Peroxisomes produce

A

hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water

-Oxygen is used to break down different types of molecules (oxidation)

121
Q

Peroxisomes perform reactions with

A

many different functions

122
Q

How peroxisomes are related to other organelles is

A

still unknown

-They do not bud off the endomembrane system

123
Q

The cytoskeleton is a

A

network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm

(a series of tubes, lines, and building blocks that help a cell retain its shape

124
Q

The cytoskeleton organizes the cell’s

A

structures and activities, anchoring many organelles

125
Q

The cytoskeleton helps to

A

support the cell and maintain its shape

126
Q

The cytoskeleton interacts with

A

motor proteins to produce motility

127
Q

Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along

A

“monorails” provided by the cytoskeleton

128
Q

Recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton may

A

help regulate biochemical activities

129
Q

roles of the cytoskeleton

A

support and motility

130
Q

Three main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton

A

microtubules
microfilaments
intermediate filaments

131
Q

Microtubules

A

, are the thickest of the three components of the cytoskeleton
(big)

132
Q

Microfilaments

A

, also called actin filaments, are the thinnest components

small

133
Q

termediate filaments

A

are fibers with diameters in a middle range

medium

134
Q

Microtubules functions

A
  • Shaping the cell
  • Guiding movement of organelles
  • Separating chromosomes during cell division

Centrosomes
Centrioles
Cilia/Flagella

135
Q

In many cells, microtubules grow out from a

A

centrosome near the nucleus

136
Q

The centrosome is a

A

“microtubule-organizing center”

137
Q

In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of

A

centrioles, each with nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring

138
Q

plants don’t have

A

centrioles

139
Q

centrioles are made of

A

microtubules.

they have a 3/9 pattern which creates the centriole

140
Q

Microtubules control the

A

beating of cilia and flagella, locomotor appendages of some cells

141
Q

Cilia and flagella share a common structure

A
  • A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane
  • A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum
  • A motor protein called dynein, which drives the bending movements of a cilium or flagellum (the back and forth flapping movement)
142
Q

basal body looks identical to centriole structure, but

A

they have different functions

143
Q

cilia/flagella have a

A

2/9/2 pattern

144
Q

How dynein “walking” moves flagella and cilia

A
  • Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release the outer microtubules
  • Protein cross-links limit sliding
  • Forces exerted by dynein arms cause doublets to curve, bending the cilium or flagellum
145
Q

motor proteins interact with

A

microtubules to get movement of cilia and flagella

146
Q

Microfilaments (Actin Filaments) are

A

solid rods

147
Q

The structural role of microfilaments is

A

to bear tension, resisting pulling forces within the cell

148
Q

Microfilaments

A

form a 3-D network called the cortex just inside the plasma membrane to help support the cell’s shape

149
Q

Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the protein

A

myosin in addition to actin

150
Q

microfilaments are how are

A

muscles move.

Microfilaments interaction with anysoin, actin

151
Q

In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are arranged

A

parallel to one another

152
Q

Thicker filaments composed of myosin interdigitate with the

A

thinner actin fibers

153
Q

Localized contraction brought about by actin and myosin also drives

A

amoeboid movement

154
Q

Pseudopodia (cellular extensions) extend and

A

contract through the reversible assembly and contraction of actin subunits into microfilaments

155
Q

Cytoplasmic streaming is a

A

circular flow of cytoplasm within cells.

-This streaming speeds distribution of materials within the cell

156
Q

In plant cells, actin-myosin interactions and sol-gel transformations drive

A

cytoplasmic streaming

157
Q

Intermediate filaments support

A

cell shape and fix organelles in place

158
Q

Intermediate filaments are more

A

permanent cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes

-stable

159
Q

Most cells synthesize and

A

secrete materials that are external to the plasma membrane

160
Q

These extracellular structures include

A
  • Cell walls of plants
  • The extra cellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells (plants dont have)
  • Intercellular junctions (how 2 cells join and communicate)

These structures help provide connections between adjacent cells, determine cell shape, and transmit information
-important- we need all of this!

161
Q

The cell wall is

A

an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells from animal cells

162
Q

Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have

A

cell walls.
(but made of different things)

fungi cell wall- chitin
plant cell wall- cellulose

163
Q

The cell wall protects the

A

plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water

164
Q

Plant cell walls are made of

A

cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and protein

165
Q

Plant cell walls may have multiple layers

A

primary cell wall
middle lamella
secondary cell wall

plasmodesmata

166
Q

Primary cell wall:

A

relatively thin and flexible

167
Q

Middle lamella:

A

thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells

168
Q

Secondary cell wall (in some cells):

A

added between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall

169
Q

Plasmodesmata are

A

channels between adjacent plant cells

how they talk to eachother

170
Q

Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate

A

extracellular matrix (ECM)

171
Q

The ECM is made up of

A

glycoproteins such as collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin

172
Q

ECM proteins bind to

A

receptor proteins in the plasma membrane called integrins

173
Q

Functions of the extracellular matrix (ECM)

A
  • Support
  • Adhesion
  • Movement
  • Regulation
174
Q

Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical contact

A

Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact

175
Q

There are several types of intercellular junctions

A

Plasmodesmata -found in plant cells only
Tight junctions -found in animal cells only
Desmosomes -found in animal cells only
Gap junctions -found in animal cells only

176
Q

Plasmodesmata are

A

channels that perforate plant cell walls

177
Q

Through plasmodesmata,

A

water and small solutes (and sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell

178
Q

At tight junctions,

A

membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid

179
Q

tight junctions

A

pressed together tightly so there is no gap

180
Q

Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into

A

strong sheets

181
Q

Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels between

A

adjacent cells

182
Q

gap junctions

A

tubes between cells that allow things to get from one to another

183
Q

desmosomes

A

one cell is anchored and allows everything to act as a unit instead of individual cells

184
Q

Cells rely on the integration of structures and organelles in order to function

A

For example, a macrophage’s ability to destroy bacteria involves the whole cell, coordinating components such as the cytoskeleton, lysosomes, and plasma membrane

185
Q

The Cell:

A

A Living Unit Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts

Biology 1406 (53 decks)

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