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Biology 201-Cell Biology > Chapter 5-Lecture > Flashcards

Chapter 5-Lecture Flashcards

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1
Q

All living things are made up of four classes

of large biological molecules:

A

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids

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2
Q

_________________: are large molecules and are complex

A

Macromolecules

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3
Q

Large biological molecules have unique properties that arise from

A

the orderly arrangement of their atoms

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4
Q

Macromolecules are polymers, built from _________

A

monomers

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5
Q

Three of the four classes of life’s organic molecules are _____________
____________ ______________ _______________

A

polymers
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic acids

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6
Q

_____________________ are specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions such as those that make or break down polymers

A

Enzymes

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7
Q

________________________ occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule

A

A dehydration reaction

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8
Q

Polymers are disassembled to monomers by ____________________ , a reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction

A

hydrolysis

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9
Q

The Diversity of Polymers

Each cell has thousands of different ____________________

A

Macromolecules

these vary among cells of an organism, vary more within a species, and vary even more between species

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10
Q

Carbohydrates include

A

sugars and the polymers of sugars

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11
Q

The simplest carbohydrates are _________________, or simple sugars

A

monosaccharides

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12
Q

Carbohydrate macromolecules are ________________________ polymers composed of many sugar building blocks
Sugars

A

polysaccharides,

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13
Q

______________________ have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH2O
Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most common monosaccharide

A

Monosaccharides

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14
Q

Monosaccharides are classified by

A

The location of the carbonyl group (as aldose
or ketose)
The number of carbons in the carbon skeleton

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15
Q

Though often drawn as linear skeletons, in aqueous solutions many sugars form ___________________
Monosaccharides serve as a_____________________ _______________________________________________

A

rings

major fuel for cells and as raw material for building molecules

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16
Q

________________: is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides via a covalent _____________ bond

A

A disaccharide

This covalent bond is called a glycosidic linkage

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17
Q

the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles

A

Polysaccharides,

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18
Q

The architecture and function of a polysaccharide are

A

determined by its sugar monomers and the positions of its glycosidic linkages

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19
Q

Starch is to plants __________________ is to animals

A

glycogen

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20
Q

___________________: a storage polysaccharide of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers
Plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts and other plastids

A

Starch

The simplest form of starch is amylose

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21
Q

________________ is a storage polysaccharide in animals

A

Glycogen

Glycogen is stored mainly in liver and muscle cells

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22
Q

Hydrolysis of glycogen in these cells releases

A

glucose when the demand for sugar increases

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23
Q

The polysaccharide ____________________ is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells

A

cellulose

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24
Q

Like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose, but

A

the glycosidic linkages differ

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25
Q

_______________: another structural polysaccharide, is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods
_______________: also provides structural support for the cell walls of many fungi

A

Chitin

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26
Q

______________: are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules. They are the one class of large biological molecules that does not include true polymers

A

Lipids

The unifying feature of lipids is that they mix poorly, if at all, with water

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27
Q

Lipids are hydrophobic because

A

they consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form nonpolar covalent bonds

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28
Q

The most biologically important lipids are

A

fats, phospholipids, and steroids

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29
Q

Fats are constructed from

A

two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids

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30
Q

Glycerol is

A

a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon

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31
Q

A fatty acid consists

A

of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton

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32
Q

Fats separate from water because

A

water molecules hydrogen-bond to each other and exclude the fats

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33
Q

In a fat, three fatty acids are joined to glycerol

by an ester linkage,

A

creating a triacylglycerol,

or triglyceride

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34
Q

The fatty acids in a fat can be all the same or of

A

two or three different kinds. Fatty acids vary in length (number of carbons) and in the number and locations of double bonds

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35
Q

_______________: fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds

A

Saturated

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36
Q

_______________: fatty acids have one or more double bonds

A

Unsaturated

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37
Q

Fats made from saturated fatty acids are

A

called saturated fats and are solid at room temperature

Most animal fats are saturated

38
Q

Fats made from unsaturated fatty acids are

A

called unsaturated fats or oils and are liquid at room temperature Plant fats and fish fats are usually unsaturated

39
Q

A diet rich in saturated fats may contribute to

A

cardiovascular disease through plaque deposits

40
Q

_______________ is the process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen

A

Hydrogenation

41
Q

Hydrogenating vegetable oils also creates unsaturated fats with _____________________
These trans fats may contribute more than saturated fats to cardiovascular disease

A

trans double bonds

42
Q

The major function of fats is ____________

A

energy storage

43
Q

Humans and other mammals store their long-term food reserves in

A

adipose cells

Adipose tissue also cushions vital organs and insulates the body

44
Q

, two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol

A

phospholipid

45
Q

The two fatty acid tails are______________, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a ____________ head

A

hydrophobic

hydrophilic

46
Q

When phospholipids are added to water, they
self-assemble into double-layered structures
called

A

phospholipid bilayers
At the surface of a cell, phospholipids are also arranged in a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior

47
Q

_______________: are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings

A

Steroids

48
Q

________________: a type of steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes and a precursor from which other steroids are synthesized. A high level of cholesterol in the blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease

A

Cholesterol,

49
Q

_____________: include a diversity
of structures, resulting in a wide range
of functions

A

Proteins

50
Q

Proteins account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells
Some proteins speed up chemical reactions

A

Other protein functions include defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, or structural support

51
Q

Enzymes are proteins that act as _____________ to speed up chemical reactions

A

catalysts

52
Q

Enzymes can perform their functions repeatedly, functioning as

A

workhorses that carry out the processes of life

53
Q

__________________ are unbranched polymers built from these amino acids

A

Polypeptides

54
Q

A protein is a biologically functional molecule that consists of one or more ______________________

A

polypeptides

55
Q

____________: are organic molecules with amino and carboxyl groups

A

Amino acids

56
Q

Amino acids differ in their properties due to

A

differing side chains, called R groups

57
Q

Amino acids are linked by covalent bonds called __________________________________

A

peptide bonds

58
Q

_________________: is a polymer of amino acids

A

A polypeptide

59
Q

Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of amino acids, with a _________ end and ________ end

A

carboxyl end (C-terminus) and an amino end (N-terminus)

60
Q

The specific activities of proteins result from their intricate three-dimensional architecture

A

A functional protein consists of one or more polypeptides precisely twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape

61
Q

The sequence of amino acids determines a protein’s three-dimensional structures

A

A protein’s structure determines how it works

62
Q

_______________________: of a protein is its sequence of amino acids

A

The primary structure
Primary structure is like the order of letters in a long word
Primary structure is determined by inherited genetic information

63
Q

The coils and folds of _______________ result from hydrogen bonds between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone

A

secondary structure

Typical secondary structures are a coil called an helix and a folded structure called a pleated sheet

64
Q

_________________: the overall shape of a polypeptide, results from interactions between
R groups, rather than interactions between backbone constituents

A

Tertiary structure,

65
Q

These interactions include hydrogen bonds,

ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and _________________________________

A

van der Waals interactions

66
Q

Strong covalent bonds called ______________ may reinforce the protein’s structure

A

disulfide bridges

67
Q

_______________: results when two or more polypeptide chains form one macromolecule

A

Quaternary structure

68
Q

__________________: is a fibrous protein consisting of three polypeptides coiled like a rope

A

Collagen

69
Q

__________________: is a globular protein consisting of

four polypeptides: two alpha and two beta chains

A

Hemoglobin

70
Q

What Determines Protein Structure?

A

In addition to primary structure, physical and chemical conditions can affect structure

71
Q

This loss of a protein’s native structure is

called

A

denaturation
Alterations in pH, salt concentration,
temperature, or other environmental factors
can cause a protein to unravel

A denatured protein is biologically inactive

72
Q

It is hard to predict a protein’s structure from its _________________________

A

primary structure

Most proteins probably go through several stages on their way to a stable structure

73
Q

____________________ are protein molecules that assist

the proper folding of other proteins

A

Chaperonins

74
Q

With out chaperonins proteins may miss fold and result in

A

Diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s,

and mad cow disease are associated with misfolded proteins

75
Q

______________________ store, transmit, and help express hereditary information

A

Nucleic acids

76
Q

The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called _____________

A

a gene

77
Q

Genes consist of DNA, a _____________ made of monomers called ___________________

A

nucleic acid

nucleotides

78
Q

There are two types of nucleic acids

A 
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
79
Q

DNA provides directions for its own replication
DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) and, through mRNA, controls protein synthesis
This process is called

A

gene expression

80
Q

Each gene along a DNA molecule directs synthesis of a messenger RNA (mRNA)
The mRNA molecule interacts with the cell’s protein-synthesizing machinery to direct production of a polypeptide

A

The flow of genetic information can be summarized as DNA → RNA → protein

81
Q

Nucleic acids are polymers called

A

polynucleotides

82
Q

Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called

A

nucleotides

83
Q

Each nucleotide consists of a

A

nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and one or more phosphate groups

84
Q

The portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group is called a

A

nucleoside
Nucleoside = nitrogenous base + sugar
Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate group

85
Q

There are two families of nitrogenous bases

A

Pyrimidines and Purines

86
Q

____________

have a single six-membered ring

A

Pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, and uracil)

87
Q

___________________ have a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring
In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose; in RNA, the sugar is ribose

A

Purines (adenine and guanine)

88
Q

Nucleotides are linked together to build a

A

polynucleotide

89
Q

DNA molecules have two polynucleotides spiraling around an imaginary axis, forming a _____________
The backbones run in opposite 5 → 3 directions from each other, an arrangement referred to as ____________
One DNA molecule includes many genes

A

double helix

antiparallel

90
Q

Only certain bases in DNA pair up and form hydrogen bonds: adenine (A) always with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always with cytosine (C)

A

This is called complementary base pairing

91
Q

RNA, in contrast to DNA,

A

is single stranded
Complementary pairing can also occur between two RNA molecules or between parts of the
same molecule

92
Q

In RNA, thymine is replaced by____________ so

A and U pair

A

uracil (U)

Biology 201-Cell Biology (27 decks)

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