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A&P > Chapter 23 > Flashcards

Chapter 23 Flashcards

1
Q

__ take urine from kidneys to urinary bladder to be stored

A

Ureters

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2
Q

what are the functions of the kidneys

A
  1. Filter blood and excrete toxic metabolic wastes
  2. Regulate blood volume, pressure, and osmolarity
  3. Regulate electrolytes and acid-base balance
  4. Secrete erythropoietin, which stimulates the production of red blood cells
  5. Help regulate calcium levels by participating in calcitriol synthesis
  6. Clear hormones from blood
  7. Detoxify free radicals
  8. In starvation, they synthesize glucose from amino acids
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3
Q

what is the definition of waste

A

any substance that is useless to the body or present in excess of the body’s needs

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4
Q

what is the definition of metabolic waste

A

waste substance produced by the body

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5
Q

ammonia is produced by __ and is then converted to

A

the catabolism of proteins, urea

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6
Q

Creatinine comes from __which is made from certain amino acids which come from proteins

A

creatine

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7
Q

Uric acid comes from

A

nucleic acids

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8
Q

urea makes up about __% of nitrogenous wastes

A

50

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9
Q

what does BUN stand for

A

blood urea nitrogen

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10
Q

what is blood urea nitrogen

A

level of nitrogenous waste in blood

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11
Q

Normal concentration of blood urea is

A

10 to 20 mg/dL

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12
Q

what is azotemia

A

elevated BUN

May indicate renal insufficiency due to nephron destruction

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13
Q

what is uremia

A

syndrome of diarrhea, vomiting, dyspnea, and cardiac arrhythmia stemming from the toxicity of nitrogenous waste
Develops at 90% loss of renal function

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14
Q

what is the treatment for uremia

A

hemodialysis or organ transplant

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15
Q

__can tell you if the blood is being cleared of nitrogenous waste

A

BUN

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16
Q

what is the definition of excretion

A

separating wastes from body fluids and eliminating them

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17
Q

what are the four body systems that carry out excretion

A

respiratory, integumentary, digestive, and urinary

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18
Q

what is excreted from the respiratory system

A

CO2, small amounts of other gases, and water

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19
Q

what is excreted from the integumentary system

A

water, inorganic salts, lactic acid, urea in sweat

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20
Q

what is excreted from the digestive system

A

water, salts, CO2, lipids, bile pigments, cholesterol, and other metabolic waste

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21
Q

what is excreted from the urinary system

A

many metabolic wastes, toxins, drugs, hormones, salts, H+, and water

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22
Q

where are the kidneys located

A

at the level of T12 to L3

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23
Q

the __ kidney is slightly lower due to th large lobe of the liver

A

right

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24
Q

how big are the kidneys

A

about the size of a bar of soap

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25
Q

what is the slit in the kidneys called

A

the hilum

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26
Q

what are the protective connective tissue coverings

A

renal fascia, perirenal fat capsule, and the fibrous capsule

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27
Q

where is the renal fascia located

A

Immediately deep to parietal peritoneum

Binds it to abdominal wall

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28
Q

what does the perineal fat capsule do

A

cushions kidney and holds it into place

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29
Q

what does the fibrous capsule of the kidneys do

A

encloses kidney protecting it from trauma and infection

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30
Q

what is renal parenchyma

A

glandular tissue that forms urine, encircles the renal sinus

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31
Q

what is the renal sinus

A

cavity that contains blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves, and urine-collecting structures. Adipose fills the remaining cavity and holds structures in place

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32
Q

what are the renal columns

A

extensions of the cortex that project inward toward sinus

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33
Q

what are the renal pyramids

A

6 to 10 with broad base facing cortex and renal papilla facing sinus

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34
Q

what are the lobes of the kidneys

A

one pyramid and its overlying cortex

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35
Q

what is a minor calyx

A

cup that nestles the papilla of each pyramid; collects its urine

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36
Q

what are the three major calyces

A

formed by convergence of 2 or 3 minor calyces

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37
Q

what is the renal pelvis

A

formed by convergence of 2 or 3 major calyces

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38
Q

what are the ureters

A

a tubular continuation of the pelvis that drains urine down to the urinary bladder

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39
Q

Kidneys are only __% of body weight, but receive about __% of cardiac output

A

0.4, 21

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40
Q

In the cortex, efferent arterioles give rise to __supplying the tissue near the glomerulus- the proximal and distal convoluted tubules

A

peritubular capillaries

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41
Q

In the medulla, efferent arterioles give rise to the __, supplying the nephron loop portion of the nephron

A

vasa recta

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42
Q

each kidney has about __ nephrons

A

1.2 million

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43
Q

each nephron is composed of two principal parts

A

the renal corpuscle and the renal tubule

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44
Q

what does the renal corpuscle do

A

filters blood plasma

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45
Q

what does the renal tubule do

A

long, coiled tube that converts the filtrate into urine

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46
Q

Renal corpuscle consists of the __ and a two-layered __ that encloses glomerulus

A

glomerulus, glomerular capsule

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47
Q

the parietal layer of the glomerular capsule is made of

A

simple squamous epithelium

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48
Q

the visceral layer of glomerular capsule consists of __ that wrap around the capillaries of the glomerulus

A

podocytes

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49
Q

what is the vascular pole

A

the side where the afferent arterial enters and the efferent arteriole leaves the corpuscle

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50
Q

what is the urinary (tubular) pole

A

where the renal tubule begins

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51
Q

what is the renal tubule

A

the duct leading away from the glomerular capsule and ending at the tip of the medullary pyramid

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52
Q

what are the four regions of the renal tubule

A

proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, distal convoluted tubules and the collecting duct

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53
Q

what regions of the renal tubule are parts of a single nephron

A

proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, and the distal convoluted tubules

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54
Q

Glomerular filtrate goes into glomerular capsule then becomes

A

tubular fluid

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55
Q

what is the proximal convoluted tubule made out of and what is it known for

A

simple cuboidal epithelium and it is the longest and most coiled region of a nephron

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56
Q

the nephron loop has a __ limb and a __ limb

A

descending and ascending

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57
Q

thick segments of the nephron loop have__ while thin segments have__

A

simple cuboidal epithelium, simple squamous epithelium

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58
Q

the distal convoluted tubule is made of __ and is special because

A

simple cuboidal epithelium, it is the end of the nephron

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59
Q

___ nephrons consist of 15% of all nephron

A

juxtamedullary

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60
Q

what do juxtamedullary do

A

maintain salinity gradient in the medulla and help conserve water

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61
Q

cortical nephrons consists of __% of nephrons

A

85

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62
Q

are cortical nephrons short or long

A

short

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63
Q

where are cortical nephrons found

A

in the cortex of the kidney but very few will extend into the medulla

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64
Q

what does the collecting duct do

A

receives fluid from the DCTs of several nephrons as it passes back into the medulla

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65
Q

Numerous collecting ducts converge toward the

A

tip of the medullary pyramid

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66
Q

the papillary duct is formed by

A

merger of several collecting ducts

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67
Q

The collecting duct receives tubular filtrate, then the fluid continues down to the papillary duct and is then considered

A

urine

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68
Q

what is the flow of fluid from the point where the glomerular filtrate is formed to the point where urine leaves the body

A

glomerular capsule → proximal convoluted tubule → nephron loop → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct → papillary duct → minor calyx → major calyx → renal pelvis → ureter → urinary bladder → urethra

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69
Q

what is the renal plexus

A

nerves and ganglia wrapped around each renal artery

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70
Q

what are the functions of the renal plexus

A
  1. Follows branches of renal artery into the parenchyma of the kidney
  2. Issues nerve fibers to blood vessels and convoluted tubules of the nephron
  3. Carries sympathetic innervation from the abdominal aortic plexus
    - Stimulation reduces glomerular blood flow and rate of urine production
    - Respond to falling blood pressure by stimulating the kidneys to secrete renin, an enzyme that activates hormonal mechanisms to restore blood pressure
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71
Q

the kidneys receive __ innervation of an unknown function

A

parasympathetic

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72
Q

kidneys convert blood plasma to urine in what four stages

A
  1. Glomerular filtration
  2. Tubular reabsorption
  3. Tubular secretion
  4. Water conservation
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73
Q

what is glomerular filtrate

A

the fluid in the capsular space

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74
Q

glomerular filtrate is similar to blood plasma except that is has almost no

A

protein

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75
Q

what is tubular fluid

A

fluid from the PCT through the DCT

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76
Q

what is urine

A

fluid that enters the collecting duct

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77
Q

The collecting tubules are a little passage way from the __ to the

A

distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct

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78
Q

When fluid hits the __that is when it is formally called urine

A

papillary duct

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79
Q

glomerular filtration creates a __like filtrate of the blood during urine formation

A

plasma

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80
Q

___ removes useful solutes from the filtrate returns them to the blood during urine formation

A

tubular reabsorption

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81
Q

__ removes additional wastes from the blood, adds them to the filtrate during urine formation

A

tubular secretion

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82
Q

__ removes water from the urine and returns it to the blood and concentrates wastes

A

water conservation

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83
Q

what is globular filtration

A

the movement of substances from the blood within the glomerulus into the capsular space

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84
Q

what is tubular reabsorption

A

the movement of substances from the tubular fluid back into the blood

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85
Q

what is tubular secretion

A

the movement of substances from the blood into the tubular fluid

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86
Q

what are the three barriers of the filtration membrane

A

fenestrated endothelium, basement membrane, and the filtration slits

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87
Q

how large are the filtration pores and why

A

70-90 nm, they are small enough to exclude blood cells

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88
Q

T?F fenestrated endothelium are highly permeable

A

true

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89
Q

the proteoglycan gel of the basement membrane excludes molecules greater than

A

8nm

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90
Q

albumin is repelled by

A

negative charge

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91
Q

Blood plasma is __% protein, the filtrate is only __% protein

A

7, 0.03

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92
Q

Podocyte cell extensions wrap around the capillaries to form a barrier layer with __ nm filtration slits

A

30

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93
Q

filtration slits are negatively/positively

A

negatively

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94
Q

what are fenestrations

A

types of pores or spaces that are of a certain size

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95
Q

Kidney infections and trauma can damage the __and allow albumin or blood cells to filter

A

filtration membrane

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96
Q

what is proteinuria

A

the presence of protein in urine

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97
Q

what is hematuria

A

the presence of blood in the urine

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98
Q

Distance runners and swimmers often experience temporary __ or__

A

proteinuria, hematuria

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99
Q

__ reduces profusion of kidney

A

Prolonged, strenuous exercise

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100
Q

Glomerulus deteriorates under

A

prolonged hypoxia

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101
Q

Filtration pressure depends on

A

hydrostatic and osmotic pressures on each side of the filtration membrane

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102
Q

why is blood hydrostatic pressure high in the glomerular capillaries than elsewhere

A

Due to afferent arteriole being substantially larger than efferent arteriole

103
Q

what is the hydrostatic pressure in the capsular space and why

A

18 mm Hg due to high filtration rate and continual accumulation of fluid in the capsule

104
Q

what is usual colloid osmotic pressure

A

32 mm Hg

105
Q

T/F: Glomerular filtrate is almost protein-free and has no significant COP

A

true

106
Q

what does filtration pressure do

A

Pushes blood from out into capsular space

107
Q

High BP in glomerulus makes kidneys vulnerable to

A

hypertension

108
Q

what can be a result of Hugh BP in the glomerulus

A

to rupture of glomerular capillaries, produce scarring of the kidneys (nephrosclerosis), and atherosclerosis of renal blood vessels, ultimately leading to renal failure

109
Q

what is the clinical term for scarring of the kidneys

A

nephrosclerosis

110
Q

what is glomerular filtration rate

A

the amount of filtrate formed per minute by the two kidneys combined

111
Q

what is the average glomerular filtration rate for men and women

A

men: 125 mL/min. or 180 L/day
women: 105 mL/min. or 150 L/day

112
Q

Filtration coefficient depends on __ and __ of filtration barrier

A

permeability, surface area

113
Q

Total amount of filtrate produced per day equals __ times the amount of blood in the body

A

50 to 60

114
Q

__% of filtrate is reabsorbed since only 1 to 2 L urine excreted per day

A

99

115
Q

what happens if the glomerular filtration rate is too high

A
  1. Fluid flows through renal tubules too rapidly for them to reabsorb the usual amount of water and solutes
  2. Urine output rises
  3. Chance of dehydration and electrolyte depletion
116
Q

what happens if GFR is too low

A
  1. Wastes are reabsorbed

2. Azotemia may occur

117
Q

by what three homeostatic mechanisms does regulation of glomerular filtration occur

A

renal auto regulation, sympathetic control, and hormonal control

118
Q

what is renal autoregulation of GF

A

The ability of the nephrons to adjust their own blood flow and GFR without external control.

119
Q

what is sympathetic control of GF

A

Nervous innervation of renal blood vessels (and adrenal epinephrine) constrict afferent arterioles redirecting blood from kidneys to heart, brain, and skeletal muscles where urgently needed

120
Q

what is hormonal control of GF

A

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Mechanism

121
Q

Conversion of glomerular filtrate to urine involves the

A

removal and addition of chemicals by tubular reabsorption and secretion

122
Q

what does PCT stand for

A

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

123
Q

PCT reabsorbs about 65% of glomerular filtrate, while it also removes some substances from __, and secretes them into tubular fluid for disposal in urine

A

blood

124
Q

what are some characteristics of the PCT

A
  1. Prominent microvilli and great length
  2. Abundant mitochondria provide ATP for active transport
  3. PCTs alone account for about 6% of one’s resting ATP and calorie consumption
125
Q

what are the two routes of reabsorption

A

transcellular route and paracellular route

126
Q

what happens the transcellular route

A

Substances pass through cytoplasm of PCT epithelial cells and out their base

127
Q

what happens the paracellular route

A
  1. Substances pass between PCT cells
  2. Junctions between epithelial cells are leaky and allow significant amounts of water to pass through
  3. Solvent drag—water carries a variety of dissolved solutes with it
128
Q

reabsorbed fluid during tubular reabsorption is taken up by

A

peritubular capillaries

129
Q

nephrons reabsorb about half of what nitrogenous waste

A

urea

130
Q

the PCT reabsorbs what nitrogenous waste

A

uric acid, but later portions of the nephron secrete it

131
Q

is creatinine reabsorbed

A

no, it is passed in the urine

132
Q

where can creatinine levels be looked at

A

in the urine and the blood

133
Q

Each day, kidneys reduce __ L of glomerular filtrate to 1 or 2 L of urine

A

180

134
Q

__% of water in filtrate is reabsorbed in PCT

A

65

135
Q

Reabsorption of solutes makes the tubule cells and tissue fluid __tonic to tubular fluid

A

hyper

136
Q

Water follows solutes by osmosis through what two routes

A

both paracellular and transcellular routes

137
Q

Transcellularly, water uses channels called

A

aquaporins

138
Q

In PCT, water is reabsorbed at constant rate called

A

obligatory water reabsorption

139
Q

what three factors promote osmosis into the capillaries

A

high interstitial fluid pressure, low blood hydrostatic pressure, and high colloid osmotic pressure

140
Q

what causes high interstitial pressure

A

due to accumulation of reabsorbed fluid in extracellular space

141
Q

what causes low blood hydrostatic pressure in the peritubular capillaries

A

due to narrowness of efferent arterioles

142
Q

what causes high colloid osmotic pressure in blood

A

due to presence of proteins that were not filtered

143
Q

The amount of solute that renal tubules can reabsorb is limited by

A

the number of transport proteins in tubule cells’ membranes

144
Q

If all transporters are occupied, any excess solute

A

passes by and appears in urine

145
Q

Transport maximum is reached when

A

transporters are saturated

146
Q

Any blood glucose level above 220 mg/dL results in

A

glycosuria

147
Q

purposes of secretion in PCT and nephron loop include

A

acid-base balance, waste removal, and clearance of drugs and contaminants

148
Q

in acid-base balance, secretion of hydrogen and bicarbonate ions helps

A

regulate pH of body fluids

149
Q

during waste removal in tubular secretion, what wastes are removed

A

Urea, uric acid, bile acids, ammonia, and a little creatinine are secreted

150
Q

what are some examples of clearance drugs and contaminants

A

morphine, penicillin, and aspirin

151
Q

what is the primary function of the nephron loop

A

to generate salinity gradient that enables collecting duct to concentrate the urine and conserve water

152
Q

during electrolyte reabsorption from filtrate, Thick segment reabsorbs 25% of __ and

A

Na+, K+, and Cl−, Tubular fluid is very dilute as it enters distal convoluted tubule

153
Q

DCT and CD reabsorb variable amounts of __

A

water and salts

154
Q

by what hormones are DCT and CD regulated

A
  1. Aldosterone,
  2. Atrial natriuretic peptide,
  3. ADH, and
  4. Parathyroid hormone
155
Q

what are the two types of cells the DCT and collecting duct

A

principal cells and intercalated cells

156
Q

what are some characteristics of principal cells

A
  1. Have receptors for hormones

2. Involved in salt and water balance

157
Q

what are some characteristics of intercalated cells

A

Involved in acid–base balance by secreting H+ into tubule lumen and reabsorbing K+

158
Q

what is the salt-retaining hormone

A

aldosterone

159
Q

what is the steroid secreted by the adrenal cortex

A

aldosterone

160
Q

what are the triggers for aldosterone secretion

A
  1. When blood Na+ concentration falls or
  2. When K+ concentration rises or
  3. There is a drop in blood pressure–>renin release–>angiotensin II formation–> stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone
161
Q

what are the functions of aldosterone

A
  1. Stimulates reabsorption of Na+ and secretion of K+
  2. Water and Cl− follow the Na+
  3. Body retains NaCl and water (blood pressure ↑)
  4. Urine volume is reduced
  5. Urine has an elevated K+ concentration
162
Q

what are atrial natriuretic peptides

A

secreted by atrial myocardium of the heart in response to high blood pressure

163
Q

what are the four actions that result n the excretion of more salt and water in the urine, thus reducing blood volume and pressure

A
  1. Dilates afferent arteriole, constricts efferent arteriole:  GFR
  2. Inhibits renin and aldosterone secretion
  3. Inhibits secretion of ADH
  4. Inhibits NaCl reabsorption by collecting duct
164
Q

ADH is secreted by

A

the posterior pituitary gland

165
Q

what are the triggers for ADH secretion

A
  1. Dehydration
  2. Loss of blood volume
  3. Rising blood osmolarity
166
Q

ADH makes the collecting duct more __ to water

A

permeable

167
Q

Water in the tubular fluid __ rather than being lost in urine

A

reenters the tissue fluid and bloodstream

168
Q

what hormone is secreted in response to low blood calcium

A

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

169
Q

what is the clinical term for low blood calcium

A

hypocalcemia

170
Q

PTH acts on PCT to

A

increase phosphate excretion

171
Q

PTH Acts on the thick segment of the ascending limb of the nephron loop, and on the DCT to

A

increase calcium reabsorption

172
Q

PTH Increases phosphate content and lowers __content in urine

A

calcium

173
Q

what is the kidneys role in water conservation

A

The kidney eliminates metabolic wastes from the body, but prevents excessive water loss

174
Q

where does the collecting duct begin

A

in the cortex where it receives tubular fluid from several nephrons

175
Q

how does the CD make urine more concentrated

A

CD runs through medulla, and reabsorbs water

176
Q

Medullary portion of CD is more permeable to water than to

A

NaCl

177
Q

what is water diuresis

A

hypotonic urine
Cortical portion of CD reabsorbs NaCl, but it is impermeable to water
Salt is removed from the urine but water stays in

178
Q

Dehydration leads to

A

production of hypertonic urine

179
Q

If BP is low in a dehydrated person, GFR will be

A

low

180
Q

The ability of kidney to concentrate urine depends on

A

salinity gradient in renal medulla

181
Q

Nephron loop acts as a

A

countercurrent multiplier

182
Q

what does a multiplier do

A

continually recaptures salt and returns it to extracellular fluid of medulla which multiplies the osmolarity of adrenal medulla

183
Q

the higher the osmolarity of the ECF, the more water leaves the __ limb by osmosis

A

descending

184
Q

the more water that leaves the descending limb, the __ the fluid is that remains in the tubule

A

slatier

185
Q

the saltier the fluid in the ascending limb, the more __ the tubule pumps into the ECF

A

salt

186
Q

how is the countercurrent exchange formed

A

by blood flowing in opposite directions in adjacent parallel capillaries

187
Q

what do the descending capillaries of the casa recta do

A

Exchanges water for salt

Water diffuses out of capillaries and salt diffuses in

188
Q

what doe the ascending capillaries of the vasa rect do

A
  1. Exchanges salt for water
  2. Water diffuses into and NaCl diffuses out of blood
  3. Vasa recta gives the salt back and does not subtract from the osmotic gradient of the medulla
189
Q

what is a urinalysis

A

examination of physical and chemical properties of urine

190
Q

why is urine yellow

A

due to urochrome pigment from breakdown of hemoglobin

191
Q

why would urine be cloudy or have blood in it

A

suggest urinary tract infection, trauma, or stones; or might just be contamination with other fluids

192
Q

what is pyuria

A

pus in the urine

193
Q

what is hematuria

A

blood in urine due to urinary tract infection, trauma, or kidney stones

194
Q

what is specific gravity of urine

A

compares urine sample’s density to that of distilled water

Density of urine ranges from 1.001 to1.028 g/mL

195
Q

what is osmolarity of urine

A

Ranges from 50 mOsm/L to 1,200 mOsm/L in dehydrated person

196
Q

what is urine pH

A

4.5 to 8.2, usually 6.0

197
Q

what is the chemical composition of urine

A

95% water and 5% solutes

198
Q

what is normal to and in urine

A

urea, NaCl, KCl, creatinine, uric acid, phosphates, sulfates, traces of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes bicarbonate, urochrome, and a trace of bilirubin

199
Q

what is abnormal to find in urine

A

glucose, free hemoglobin, albumin, ketones, bile pigments

200
Q

what is normal urine volume for adults

A

1 to 2 L/day

201
Q

what is polyuria

A

output excess of 2 L/day

202
Q

what is oliguria

A

output less than 500mL/day

203
Q

what is anura

A

0-100mL/day

204
Q

what can cause anuria

A

Low output from kidney disease, dehydration, circulatory shock, prostate enlargement

205
Q

what is the definition of diabetes

A

any metabolic disorder resulting in chronic polyuria; usually as a result of high concentrations of glucose in the renal tubule.

206
Q

what are some characteristics of diabetes mellitus type 1, 2 an dgeatational diabetes

A

High concentration of glucose in renal tubule
Glucose opposes the osmotic reabsorption of water
More water passes in urine (osmotic diuresis)
Glycosuria—glucose in the urine

207
Q

what is glycosuria

A

glucose in the urine

208
Q

what is diabetes insipidus

A

ADH hyposecretion causes not enough water to be reabsorbed in the collecting duct
More water passes in urine

209
Q

inisipidus has __uria but not__uria

A

ply, glyco

210
Q

what are diuretcs

A

any chemical that increase urine volume

211
Q

some diuretics increase

A

GFR

212
Q

what does caffeine do to effect urine volume

A

dilates the afferent arteriole

213
Q

some diuretics reduce tubular reabsorption of water such as

A

alcohol which inhibits ADH secretion

214
Q

some diuretics act on a nephron loop to inhibit

A

Na+–K+–Cl− symport

215
Q

Diuretics are commonly used to treat _- by reducing the body’s fluid volume and blood pressure

A

hypertension

216
Q

what is renal clearance

A

The volume of blood plasma from which a particular waste is completely removed in one minute. Clinically measured by blood and urine tests.

217
Q

what is GFR estimated from

A

creatinine excretion

218
Q

Urination is episodic—

A

occurring when we allow it

219
Q

what are the ureters

A

retroperitoneal, muscular tubes that extend from each kidney to the urinary bladder

220
Q

the ureters pass __ to the bladder and enter it from

A

posterior, below

221
Q

what are the three layers of the ureter

A

adventitia, muscular, mucosa

222
Q

what does the adventitia consist of

A

connective tissue layer that connects ureter to surrounding structures

223
Q

what does the muscular consist of

A

two layers of smooth muscle with third layer in lower ureter

224
Q

as the Urine enters the ureters, it stretches and contracts in

A

peristaltic wave

225
Q

what is the mucosa consist of

A

transitional epithelium

226
Q

are males or female more susceptible to UTIs and why

A

females because of their shorter urethra

227
Q

where is the urinary bladder located

A

the pelvic floor

228
Q

what are the three layers of the urinary bladder

A

parietal peritoneum, msucularis(three layers of smooth muscle), and mucosa (consisting of transitional epithelium)

229
Q

Umbrella cells on surface of epithelium of the mucosa layer of the urinary bladder protect it from the

A

hypertonic, acidic urine

230
Q

what is the capacity of the urinary bladder

A

moderate fullness is 500 mL, maximum fullness is 700 to 800 mL

231
Q

what is another name for kidney stones

A

renal calculus

232
Q

what are kidney stones made of

A

hard granule of calcium phosphate, calcium oxalate, uric acid, or a magnesium salt called struvite

233
Q

where are kidney stones formed

A

the renal pelvis

234
Q

what is hydronephrosis

A

pressure buildup in the kidney, can be caused by large kidney stones. this destroys nephrons

235
Q

what is hematuria

A

damage to a ureter likely caused by jagged kidney stones

236
Q

what are some causes of kidney stones

A

hypercalcemia, dehydration, pH imbalances, frequency UTIs, or enlarged prostate causing urine retention

237
Q

what are treatments for kidney stones

A

stone-dissolving drugs, often surgery, or lithotripsy

238
Q

what is lithotripsy

A

nonsurgical technique that pulverizes stones with ultrasound

239
Q

what is cystitis

A

an infection of the urinary bladder

240
Q

is cystitis more common in female or males and why

A

females because of the shorter urethra

241
Q

what frequently triggers cystitis

A

sexual intercourse

242
Q

cystitis can spread up the ureter causing

A

pyelitis

243
Q

what is pyelitis

A

infection of the renal pelvis

244
Q

what is pyelonephritis

A

infection that reaches the cortex and the nephrons

245
Q

what can cause pyelonephritis

A

blood borne bacteria

246
Q

what system controls the internal urethral sphincter

A

sympathetic

247
Q

what system controls the external sphincter

A

somatic motor fibers

248
Q

what is micturition

A

the act of urinating

249
Q

what can cause urinary incontinence

A

spinal cord injuries, a number of diseases, and simple aging

250
Q

stretch receptors detect the filling of the bladder and transmit __ signals to the spinal cord (Involuntary)

A

afferent

251
Q

signals concerning bladder stretch return to the bladder from spinal cord segments __ and __ via ___ fibers in the pelvic nerve (involuntary)

A

S2, S3, parasympathetic

252
Q

__ signals excite detrusor muscles (involuntary)

A

efferent

253
Q

__ signals relax internal urethral sphincter. urine is involuntarily voided if not inhibited by brain (involuntary)

A

efferent

254
Q

for voluntary control, micturition center in pons receives signals from

A

stretch receptors

A&P (14 decks)

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