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Biology > Chapter 2 - Reproduction > Flashcards

Chapter 2 - Reproduction Flashcards

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1
Q

Reproduction

(definition)

A

organisms perpetuates itself and its species

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2
Q

cell division

(definition)

A
  • cell doubles its organelles and cytoplasm
  • replicates DNA
  • divides into two
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3
Q

unicellular organisms

(cell division)

A

means of reproduction

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4
Q

mutlicellular organism

(cell division)

A
  • method of growth
  • development
  • replacement of worn-out cells
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5
Q

Mitosis

(definition)

A
  • division and distribution of DNA to two daughter cells
  • each cell receives complete copy of original genome
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6
Q

Mitosis

(General steps)

A
  1. Interphase
  2. Nuclear division
  3. Cell division
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7
Q

Karyokinesis

A

nuclear division

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8
Q

cytokinesis

A
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9
Q

Steps of Mitosis

A
  1. Interphase
  2. Prophase
  3. Metaphase
  4. Anaphase
  5. Telophase
  6. Cytokinesis
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10
Q

Interphase

A
  • 90% of cell’s life
  • each chromosome replicated
  • after replication - chromosome = two daughter chromatids
  • individual chromosomes NOT visible
  • DNA uncoiled (chromatin)
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11
Q

each chromosome replicated during interphase so that..

A

a complete copy of genome can be distributed to both daughter cells

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12
Q

centromere

A

central region where sister chromatids held together

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13
Q

chromatin

A

uncoiled DNA

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14
Q

Prophase

A
  • Chromosomes condense
  • (animals) centriole pairs separate and move towards opposite poles of cell
  • spindle apparatus forms between
  • nuclear membrane dissolves
  • spindle fibers interact with chromosomes
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15
Q

metaphase

A

centriole pairs at opposite poles of cell

fibers of spindle apparatus attach to each chromatid at centomere to align chromosomes at center of cell (equator)

forms metaphase plate

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16
Q

anaphase

A

centromeres split

each chromatid has own distinct centromere

sister chromatids separate

shortneing of spindle fibers pulls sister chromatids towards opposite poles of cell

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17
Q

microtubules

A

makeup spindle fibers

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18
Q

telophase

A
  • spindle apparatus disappears
  • nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes
  • each nucleus contains 2N
  • chromosomes uncoil
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19
Q

Cytokinesis

A

end of telophase

cytoplasm divides into two daughter cells

(animal cells) cleavage furrow forms

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20
Q

cleavage furrow

A
  • cell membrane indents along equator of cell
  • pinches through cell
  • separates two nuclei
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21
Q

Prophase

(synopsis)

A

chromosomes condense

spindles form

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22
Q

Metaphase

(synopses)

A

chromosomes align

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23
Q

Anaphase

(synopsis)

A

sister chromatids separate

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24
Q

telophase

(synopsis)

A

new nuclear membrane forms

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25
Q

chromatid composed of..

A

double-stranded molecule of DNA

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26
Q

sister chromatids

A

identical copies of each other

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27
Q

chromosome

A

single chromatid

or

pair of chromatids attached at centromere

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28
Q

Mitosis in Plant Cells

(2 major differences bw plant and animal)

A

plants lack centrioles

spindle apparatus synthesized by microtubule organizing centers (invisible)

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29
Q

Why no cleavage furrow in plant cells?

(cytokinesis)

A

plant cells are rigid

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30
Q

how do plant cells divide?

(cytokinesis)

A

formation of a cell plate

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31
Q

cell plate

(cytokinesis in plant cells)

A

expanding partition

grows outward from interior of cell until reaches cell membrane

way in which plant cells divide (cytokinesis)

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32
Q

Meiosis

A

process by which sex cells are formed

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33
Q

sexual reproduction

(meiosis)

A

fusion of two gametes

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34
Q

gametes

(meiosis)

A

specialized sex cells produced by each parent

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35
Q

similarities bw meiosis and mitosis

A

cell duplicates its chromosomes before undergoing process

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36
Q

differences between mitosis and meiosis

A

mitosis preserves diploid (2N)

meiosis produces haploid (1N)

meiosis halves number of chromosomes

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37
Q

meiosis involves ___ divisions of primary sex cells

A

2

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38
Q

Mieosis results in ___ haploid cells

A

4

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39
Q

Phases of Meiosis

A
  1. Interphase
  2. Prophase 1
  3. Metaphase 1
  4. Anaphase 1
  5. Telophase 1
  6. metaphase 2
  7. anaphase 2
  8. telophase 2
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40
Q

Interphase

(meiosis)

A

parent cell’s chromosomes replicated

result in 2N number of sister chromatids

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41
Q

First Meiotic Division produces

(Meiosis)

A

two intermediate daughter cells with N chromosomes with sister chromatids

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42
Q

Prophase 1

(meiosis)

A
  • chromatin —> chromosomes
  • spindle apparatus appears
  • necleoli, nuclear membrane disappear
  • homologous chromosomes intertwine
  • recombination, crossing over occurs
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43
Q

Homologous chromosomes

(prophase 1 - meiosis)

A

chromosomes that code for same traits

one inhereted from each parent

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44
Q

synapsis

A

homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine

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45
Q

tetrad

(prophase 1 - meiosis)

A

synaptic pair of homologous chromosomes containing 4 chromatids

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46
Q

crossing over

(prophase 1 - meiosis)

A

chromatids of homologous chromsomes break at corresponding points and exchange DNA

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47
Q

crossing over occurs between…

A

homologous chromosomes

NOT sister chromatids of same chromosomes

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48
Q

recombination results in…

A

genetic diversity within a species

sister chromatids no longer identical after recombination

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49
Q

anaphase 1

(meiosis)

A

homologous pairs pulled to opposite poles

(disjunction)

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50
Q

Disjunction

(Anaphase 1 - Meiosis)

A

each chromosome (paternal) separates from homologue (maternal)

either chromosome ends up in either daughter cell

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51
Q

each daughter cell has…

(as a result of meiosis 1)

A

unique pool of genes from random mixture of maternal and paternal origin

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52
Q

telophase 1

(meiosis)

A

nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus

each chromosome consists of sister chromatids joined at centromere

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53
Q

2nd Meiotic Division

(meiosis)

A

similiar to mitosis

not preceded by chromosomal replication

  1. metaphase ii
  2. anaphase ii
  3. telophase ii
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54
Q

metaphase 2

(meiosis)

A

chromosomes align at equator

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55
Q

anaphase 2

(meiosis)

A

chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles

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56
Q

telophase 2

(meiosis)

A

chromosomes are surrounded by reformed nuclear membrane

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57
Q

final product of meiosis

A

4 haploid (1N) games

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58
Q

human females

product of meiosis

A

4 haploid gametes

only one daughter cell becomes functional gamete

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59
Q

Mitosis Summary

A

2N –> 2N

in all dividing cells

homologous chromosomes don’t pair up

no crossing over

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60
Q

Meiosis Summary

A

2N —-> N

only in sex cells

homologous chromosomes pair up at metaphase plate

form tetrads

crossing over occurs

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61
Q

Sexual Reproductive Mechanisms

A

Sexual Reproduction in Animals

Sexual Reproduction in Humans

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62
Q

sexual reproduction differs from asexual in that there are…

A

two parents

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63
Q

end result of sexual reproduction

A

genetically unique offspring

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64
Q

sexual reproduction occurs via

A

fusion of two gametes

65
Q

gametes

A

specialized sex cells produced by each parent (result of meiosis)

66
Q

Sexual Reproduction Requires

A
  • production of functional sex cells or gametes by adult organisms
  • union of these cells to form zygote (fertilization or conjugation)
  • development of zygote into another adult
67
Q

Sexual Reproduction in Animals

A

formation and fertilization of gametes

regulation of processes by both parents

68
Q

Gonads

(sexual reproduction in animals)

male and female

A

organs

produces gametes

male - testes

female - ovaries

69
Q

testes

A

male gonads

produce sperm in tightly coiled seminiferous tubules

70
Q

ovaries

A

female gonads

produce oocytes (eggs)

71
Q

oocytes

A

eggs produced by ovaries (female gonads)

72
Q

Hermaphrodites

A

species with both female and male gonads

e.g. hydra, earthworm

73
Q

spermatogenisis

(sexual reproduction in animals)

A

sperm production

occurs in seminiferous tubules

74
Q

spermatogonia

A

diploid cells

undergo meiosis

produce 4 haploid sperm (equal in size)

75
Q

mature sperm

(form)

A

elongated cell

head, tail, neck, body

76
Q

head of sperm

A

consists of nucleus

contains paternal genome

77
Q

flagellum

A

tail of sperm

propels sperm

78
Q

neck and body of sperm

A

contain mitochondria

provide energy for locomotion

79
Q

Oogenesis

(sexual reproduction in animals)

A

production of female gametes

occurs in ovaries

80
Q

process of oogenesis

A

one diploid primary female sex cell —> meiosis in ovaries —> single mature egg

81
Q

each meiotic division of oogenesis produces

A

polar body

82
Q

polar body

A

small cell

contains nucleus

rapidly degenerate

83
Q

mature ovum is/contains

(oogenesis)

A

large cell

  • cytopolasm
  • RNA
  • organelles
  • nutrients needed by developing embryo
84
Q

Fertilization

definition

types

(sexual reproduction in animals)

A

union of egg and sperm nuclei

forms zygote (diploid)

  • external fertilization
  • internal fertilization
85
Q

External Fertilization

who and process

(Fertilization)

(sexual reproduction in animals)

A

vertebrates that reproduce in water

(fish and amphibians)

female lays eggs in water

male deposits sperm in vicinity

many eggs must be layed

86
Q

con of external fertilization

A

indirect

reduces changes of fertilization

female must lay many eggs

87
Q

sperm characteristics

(external fertilization)

A

flagella - to swim through water to eggs

88
Q

Internal Fertilization

who

A

terrestrial vertebrates

89
Q

internal fertilization

pros

A

direct route

increase chance of success

female produces fewer eggs

90
Q

factors affecting number of eggs produced by female

(3 factors)

A
  1. internal vs. external fertilization
  2. early development outside/inside mother’s body
  3. amount of prenatal care after birth
91
Q

Human Reproduction

(4 components)

A
  1. Male Reproductive Physiology
  2. Female Reproductive Physiology
  3. Female Sex Hormones
  4. The Menstrual Cycle
92
Q

Male Reproductive Physiology

Sperm pass from:

(SEVEn UP)

A

seminiferous tubules –> testes –> vas deferens –> ejaculatory duct –> urethra –> penis

93
Q

http://www.maleinfertilitycure.com/image/intro_to_male_infertility.jpg

male reproductive anatomy

A
94
Q

testes located in

A

scrotum - external pouch

95
Q

scrotum

A

maintains testes temp 2-4C lower than body temp

(essential for sperm survival)

96
Q

urethra

A

passes through penis

opens to outside at tip

serves for reproductive and excretory systems

97
Q

testes re hormones

A

production of testosterone

98
Q

testosterone

A

regulates male sex characteristics

(facial and pubic hair, voice changes, etc)

99
Q

Female Reproductive Anatomy

A

ovaries –> releases immature ovum –> abdominal cavity —> oviduct —> fallopian tube –> uterus –> cervix –> vaginal canal –> open world

100
Q

ovaries (location)

A

in abdominal cavity

below digestive system

101
Q

ovaries consist of:

A

thousands of follicles

102
Q

once a month, the ovary

A

releases an immature ovum into the abdominal cavity

103
Q

follicle

(form and function)

A

multilayered sac of cells

contains, nourishes, protects immature ovum

104
Q

follicle cells produce

A

estrogen

105
Q

uterus

A

muscular chamber

site of fetal development

106
Q

cervix

A

lower, narrow end of uterus

connects with vaginal canal

107
Q

vaginal canal

A

site of sperm deposition during intercourse

passageway through which baby expelled

108
Q

at birth

(re: eggs)

A

all eggs that female will ovulate are present

(no production throughout lifetime)

109
Q

Female Sex Hormones

synthesized and secreted by

A

ovaries

110
Q

female sex hormones are

A

estrogens

progesterone

111
Q

secretion of estrogen and prostegerone regulated by:

A

LH

FSH

112
Q

LH

FSH

regulated by

A

GnRH

113
Q

Estrogens

(Female Sex Hormones)

are and cause (5)

A
  • steroid hormones
  • cause:
  1. female menstruation
  2. dev reproductive tract
  3. dev secondary sexual characteristics
  4. sex drive
  5. thickening of endometrium (uterine wall)
114
Q

estrogens are secreted by

A
  1. ovarian follicles
  2. corpus luteum
115
Q

progesterone

(female sex hormones)

are and cause (1)

A

steroid hormone

dev maintenance of endometrial walls —> prep for implantation

116
Q

progesterone secreted by

A

corpus luteum

117
Q

progesterone secreted during

A

luteal phase

(menstraul cycle)

118
Q

Menstrual Cycle

hormones secreted by

A
  1. ovaries
  2. hypothalamus
  3. anterior pituitary
119
Q

menstrual cycle duration

A

puberty –> menopause

monthly cyclical

120
Q

Menstrual Cycle Phases

A
  1. Follicular
  2. Ovulation
  3. Luteal
  4. Menstruation
121
Q

Follicular Phase

(menstrual cycle)

A
  1. cessation of menstrual flow
  2. FSH promotes dev of follicle
  3. follicle grows, secretes estrogen
122
Q

FSH released by

(follicular phase)

A

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

anterior pituitary

123
Q

Ovulation

(menstrual cycle)

A
  1. peak in estrogen levels —> surge in LH
  2. triggered by LH surge at midcycle
  3. mature ovarian follicle bursts
  4. releases ovum
124
Q

Luteal Phase

(menstrual cycle)

A
  1. LH induces ruptured follicle —> corpus luteum
  2. CL secretes estrogen, progesterone
  3. Progesterone –> glands of endometrium to mature
  4. glands of endometrium –> secretions to prep for implantation of embryo
  5. LH, FSH inhibited
125
Q

LH

A

Luteinizing Hormone

126
Q

corpus luteum secretes

A

estrogen, progesterone

during luteal phase

127
Q

progesterone and estrogen essential during luteal phase for

A

maintenance of endometrium

128
Q

Menstruation

if ovum not fertilized

(menstrual cycle)

A
  1. corpus luteum atrophies
  2. drop in progesterone and estrogen
  3. endometrium + superficial blood vessels slough off
  4. menses
  5. LH + FSH begin to rise again
129
Q

menses

A

menstrual flow

130
Q

Menstruation

(menstrual cycle)

if fertilization occurs

A
  1. developing placenta produces hCG
  2. hCG maintains corpus luteum
  3. estrogen, progesterone maintained
  4. uterus maintained
  5. until placenta takes over production of e + p
131
Q

hCG

A

human chorionic gonadotrophin

132
Q

Asexual Reproduction

A

reproduction w/o fertilization

133
Q

new organisms formed by

(asexual reproduction)

A

division of single parent cell

carbon copies of parent cells

134
Q

offspring are not identical to parent cells in asexual reproduction when

A

random mutations

135
Q

Types of asexual reproduction

A
  • fission
  • budding
  • regeneration
  • parthenogenesis
136
Q

Prokaryotes reproduce

A

asexually

137
Q

in animals, asexual rep more common in

A

invertebrates

138
Q

all plants use

(reproduction)

A

asexual reproduction

139
Q

Binary Fission

process

(asexual reproduction)

A
  • DNA replicates
  • plasma membrane and cell wall grow inward along midline of cell
  • divide into 2 = parts
  • contain cytoplasm + duplicate of parent cell
140
Q

binary fission occurs in

A

prokaryotes

some primitive eukaryotes

one-celled oganisms

e.g. amoebae, paramecia, algae, bacteria

141
Q

Budding

produces

(asexual reproduction)

A

replication of nucleus

unequal cytokinesis

142
Q

Budding process

A
  1. cell membrane pinches inward
  2. new cell forms
  3. new cell smaller, genetically identical to parent cell
  4. new cell grows to adult size
143
Q

Budding

(two options for growth of new cell)

A
  1. separate immediately
  2. remain attached, develop as outgrowth, separate later
144
Q

Budding occurs in

A

hydra

yeast

145
Q

Regeneration

(definition)

(asexual reproduction)

A

regrowth or lost/injured body part

146
Q

regeneration

process

A

mitosis

147
Q

extent of regeneration

A

some lower animals –> extensive capabilities

e.g. starfish -

may regenerate body from arm

arm must include **central disk **

e.g. salamanders/tadpokes

regenerate new limbs - extend depends on nerve damage to severed body part

148
Q

central disk

(starfish)

A

body control center

center of body, from which radiate arms

149
Q

Parthenogenesis

definition

(asexual reproduction)

A

dev. of unfertilized egg into adult organism

150
Q

parthenogenesis occurs naturaly in

A

some lower organisms

151
Q

e.g. of parthenogenesis

most species of bees and ants

A

male bees via parthenogenesis

worker and queen bees via fertilized eggs

152
Q

artificial parthenogenesis

A

eggs of rabit + frogs

stimulated by electric shock or pin-prick

153
Q

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

A

alternation of generations

2N sporophyte gen

N gametophyte gen

154
Q

length of gen in plant sexual rep

A

relative lengths of two stages vary with plant type

evo trend –> increased dominance of sporophyte gen

155
Q

Cycle of plant sexual rep

A

Sporophyte 2N –> Spore 1N –> Gametophyte 1N –> fertilization 1N + 1N gametes –> Sporophyte 2N

156
Q

Gametophyte Generation

(Plant sexual rep)

A

haploid gametophyte gen produces gametes via mitosis

157
Q

fertilization

(gametophyte generation - plant sexual rep)

A

male and female gametes at fertilization restores diploid sporophyte generation

158
Q

gametophyte gen vs. sporophyte gen

A

gametophytes rep sexually

sporophytes rep asexually

159
Q
A

Biology (19 decks)

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