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Biology > Chapter 1 - The Basis of Life > Flashcards

Chapter 1 - The Basis of Life Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Cell Theory

Proposed after dev. of microscope in 17th century

A
  • All living things are composed of cells
  • The cell is the basic functional unit of life
  • Cells arise only from pre-existing cells
  • Cells carry genetic information in form of DNA
  • DNA passed from parent to daughter cell
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2
Q

Studying the Cell:

Microscopy

(types)

A

Most basic tool used to study cells

  • Compound light microscope
  • Phase contrast microscopy
  • Electron microscopy
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3
Q

Magnification

A

Increase in apparent size of an object

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4
Q

Resolution

A

Differentiation of two closely situated objects

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5
Q

Compound Light Microscope

A
  • two lenses or lens sytems to magnify an object
  • total magnification = mag of eyepiece x mag of objective
  • observe non-living specimen
  • requires contrast b/w cells and cell structures
  • staining = cell death
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6
Q

Daiphragm

(compound light microscope)

A

controls amount of light passing through specimen

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7
Q

Coarse adjustment

Fine adjustment

(compound light micr)

A

roughly focuses image

sharply focuses image

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8
Q

Phase Contrast Microscopy

A
  • light microscope
  • study of living cells
  • differences in refractive index produce contrast b/w cellular structures
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9
Q

Electron Microscopy

A
  • beam of electrons
  • x1000 higher mag than light microscopy
  • non-living
  • because tissues fixed, sectioned, stained with heavy metal solutions
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10
Q

Centrifugation

(Studying the Cell)

A
  • separate cells or mixtures of cells w/o destroying
  • components sediment at diff. levels in test tube based on relative densities
  • (nuclie, ER, mitochondria more dense, on bottom)
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11
Q

Cell Biology

Organelles are specialized in function

A

nucleus, ribosomes, ER, golgi apparatus, vesicles, vacuoles, lysosomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts, centrioles

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12
Q

Cell Membrane

(Plasma membrane)

A
  • encloses cell
  • exhibits cell permeability
  • regulates passage of materials into and out of cell
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13
Q

Fluid Mosaic Model

(cell membrane)

A
  • cell membrane consists of phospholipid bilayer
  • proteins embedded throughout
  • lipids and proteins can move freely within membrane
  • allows membrane to be:
  • permeable to small nonpolar & polar molecules
  • small charged proteins cross membrane through protein channels
  • larger cross membrane with help of carrier proteins
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14
Q

carrier proteins

A
  • involved in movement of ions, small molecules or macromolecules across bio membrane
  • exist within membrane
  • assist via facilitated diffusion or acrive transport
  • recognizes only one substance or small group of substances
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15
Q

Nucleus

A
  • controls activities of cell, including cell division
  • surrounded by nuclear membrane
  • contains DNA
  • contains nucleolus
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16
Q

DNA

A
  • made up of structural proteins - histones; form chromosomes
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17
Q

nucleolus

A
  • dense structure in nucleus
  • synthesize ribosomes
  • site of RNA (rRNA) synthesis
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18
Q

Ribosome

A
  • sites of protein production, synthesized by nucleolus
  • free ribosomes in cytoplasm
  • bound ribosomes line outer membrane of ER
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19
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A
  • network of membrane-enclosed spaces
  • transport of materials throughout cell
  • esp. those to be secreted by cell
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20
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A
  • Receives vesicles and contents from smooth ER
  • Modifies them (glycosylation)
  • repackages into vesicles
  • distributes to cell surface via exocytosis
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21
Q

Mitochondria

A
  • aerobic respiration
  • supply energy
  • bounded by outer, inner phospholipid bilayer
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22
Q

Cytoplasm

A
  • Metabolic activity
  • transport within via cyclosis
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23
Q

Cyclosis

A

streaming movement within cell

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24
Q

Vacuole

(& Vesicles)

A
  • membrane-bound sacs
  • transport and storage of materials that are ingested, secreted, processed, or digested by cell
  • vacuoles larger than vesicles; more likely in plant than animal
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25
Q

Centrioles

A
  • microtubule involved in spindle organization during cell division
  • not bound by membrane
  • in pairs; oriented in right angles
  • in region called centrosome
  • ONLY ANIMAL CELLS
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26
Q

Lysosome

A

vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes –> intracellular digestion

break down material ingested by cell

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27
Q

Autolysis

A
  • rupture lysosome membrane and release hydrolytic enzymes
  • injured or dying tissue way to commit suicide
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28
Q

Cytoskeleton

A
  • composed of microtubules and microfilaments
  • gives cell mechanical support
  • maintains shape
  • functions in cell motility
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29
Q

Form follows function

A
  • not all cells have same relative distribution of organelles
  • cells requiring lots of energy for locomotion (sperm cells) - lots of mitochondria
  • cells involved in secretion (pancreatic islet cells) - lots of Golgi bodies
  • cells involved in transport (red blood cells) - no organelles
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30
Q

Transport across cell membrane

A
  • substances move in and out of cells
  • various methods
  • passive (no energy) vs. active (energy expenditure - ATP)
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31
Q

Simple Diffusion

(transport)

A
  • net movement of dissolved particles down concentration gradients
  • higher to lower
  • passive (no external energy req’d)
  • e.g. osmosis
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32
Q

Osmosis

(Simple diffusion)

A
  • simple diffusion of water
  • low solute conc. to high solute conc.
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33
Q

Hypertonic Solution

A
  • cytoplasm of cell has lower conc. of nonpenetrating solutes than extracellular medium
  • medium is hypertonic to cell
  • water will flow out of cell
  • cell shrivels
  • process is called plasmolysis
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34
Q

Hypotonic Solution

A

extracellular env. less conc. than cytoplasm

extracellular medium is hypotonic

**water will flow into cell **

cell will swell and lyse (burst)

e.g. red blood cells burst in DI water

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35
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

(passive transport)

A
  • net movement of dissolved particles down conc. gradient through special channels or carrier proteins in cell membrane
  • no energy req’d
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36
Q

Active Transport

A
  • net movement of dissolved particles against conc. gradient
  • with help of transport proteins
  • requires energy
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37
Q

Passive Diffusion

A

Down gradient

No carrier

No energy req’d

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38
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A
  • Down gradient
  • Carrier
  • No energy req’d
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39
Q

Active Transport

A

Against gradient

Carrier

Energy req’d

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40
Q

Prokaryotes

A
  • Bacteria
  • Cell wall present
  • Cell wall composed of peptidoglycans
  • No nucleus
  • Ribosomes (subunits = 30S & 50S)
  • No membrane-bound organelles
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41
Q

Eukaryotes

A
  • Protists, Fungi, Plants, Animals
  • Cell wall in FUNGI and PLANTS only
  • Nucleus
  • Ribosomes (subunits = 40S & 60S)
  • Membrane-boun organelles
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42
Q

Circulation

A

transportation of material within cells and throughout body of multicellular organism

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43
Q

Intracellular Circulation

A

via:

  • Brownian Movement
  • Cyclosis or streaming
  • Endoplasmic reticulum
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44
Q

Brownian Movement

(Intracellular Circulation)

A
  • movement of particles via kinetic energy
  • spreads small suspended particles throughout cytoplasm
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45
Q

Cyclosis or streaming

(Intracellular circulation)

A

circular motion of cytoplasm around cell transport molecules

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46
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

(intracellular circulation)

A
  • channels throughout cytoplasm
  • direct continuous passageway from plasma membrane to nuclear membrane
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47
Q

Extracellular Circulation

A

Diffusion

Circulatory System

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48
Q

Diffusion

(Extracellular Circulation)

A
  • cells in direct/close contact with external environment
  • sufficient means of transport for food and oxygen from env. to cells
  • more complex animals - imp. for for transport of materials bw cells and interstitial fluid
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49
Q

Interstitial Fluid

A

fluid which bathes cells

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50
Q

Circulatory System

(Extracellular Circulation)

A

includes vessels to transport fluid and pump to drive circulation

req’d by complex animals - cells too far from external env. to transport materials by diffusion

51
Q

Enzymes

A
  • organic catalysts
  • proteins
  • many are conjugated proteins (work with non-protein coenzyme)
  • affects rate of rxn w/o being changed/consumed
  • crucial to life because living need continuous controlled chem. activity
  • speed up for slow down rxns
  • decrease activation energy
  • do not affect overall dG
52
Q

Enzyme Specificity

A
  • selective
  • catalyze only 1 rxn, 1 specific class of related rxns
  • acts upon substrate
  • substrate binds to enzyme’s active site
53
Q

2 models of enzyme binding

A
  1. lock and key theory
  2. induced fit theory
54
Q

Lock and Key theory

A
  • spatial structure of enzyme’s active size exactly matches that of substrate
  • fit together like lock and key
  • largely discounted theory
55
Q

Induced Fit Theory

A
  • widely accepted
  • active site has flexibilty of shape
  • appropriate substrate comes in contact - active site conforms to fit substrate
56
Q

Enzyme Reversibility

A
  • product synthesized by enzyme can be decomposed by same enzyme
  • e.g. enzyme synthesizes maltose from glucose; enzyme hydrolyzes glucose from maltose
57
Q

Enzyme Action depends on:

A
  1. Temp
  2. pH
  3. Concentration
58
Q

Effects of Temp

A
  • as temp increases, rate of enzyme action increases
  • optimum temp at 40C
  • past 40C, heat alters shape of active site and deactivates it
  • thus - rapid drop in rate
59
Q

Effects of pH

A
  • optimal pH for each enzyme -
  • above & below enzyme activity declines
  • optimal pH matches conditions under which enzyme operates
60
Q

Human Enzyme Activity pH

A
  • human max enzyme activity - 7.2 (pH of most body fluids)
  • pepsin - highly acidic stomach - pH 2
  • pancreatic enzymes - alkaline - pH 8.5
61
Q

Effects of Concentration

A

Concentration of enzyme + substrate low:

  • active sites unoccupied
  • rxn rate low

increasing substrate concentration

  • increase rxn rate until all active sites occupied, then plateus
  • Michaelis-Menten Model (pg. 22)
62
Q

Examples of Enzyme Activity (Rxn types)

A

Hydrolysis

Synthesis

63
Q

Hydrolysis

(Enzyme Rxns)

A
  • digest large molecules into smaller components
  • e.g.

Lactose —-> glucose + galactose

enzyme: lactase (over arrow)
monosaccharaides: glucose + galactose
* e.g.

proteins —> amino acids

enzyme: proteases
* e.g.

lipids —> fatty acids + glyerol

enzyme: lipases

64
Q

Hydrolysis in multicellular organisms

A
  • digestion can begin outside cells, in gut
  • other hydrolytic rxns within cells
65
Q

Synthesis

(Enzyme Rxns)

A
  • can be catalyzed by same enzymes as hydrolysis
  • directions reversed
  • occur in diff. parts of cell
  • e.g. protein synthesis in ribosomes - dehydration synthesis bw amino acids
  • survival depends on ability to ingest substances that cannot be synthesized
  • once ingested, substanes —> useful products
66
Q

Synthesis (Enzyme Rxns)

required for:

A
  • growth
  • repair
  • regulation
  • protection
  • production of food reserves (e.g. fat, glycogen) by cell
67
Q

Cofactors

A

many enzymes require help of nonprotein mlc to become active

can be: metal cations (Zn2+, Fe2+) or coenzymes

68
Q

Coenzymes

(Cofactors)

A
  • small organic groups
  • most cannot be synthesized by body
  • obtained from diet as vitamin derivatives
69
Q

Prosthetic Groups

(Cofactors)

A

Cofactors which bind to enzyme via strong covalent bonds

70
Q

Cellular Respiration

A
  • metabolic rxns in cells: catabolic redox rxns
  • convert biochemical energy from nutrients into ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
  • then release waste products
  • cell gains energy
71
Q

Photosynthesis

A

converts energy of sun into chemical energy of bonds in compounds (e.g. glucose)

72
Q

Respiration

A

conversion of chemical energy in bonds (re: photosynthesis) into usable energy needed to drive processes of living cells

73
Q

(favored) Fuel molecules

A
  • Carbohydrates
  • Fats
74
Q

Hydrogen

(cellular respiration)

A

Hydrogen removed = bond energy made available

C-H bond is energy rich

C-H bond releases largest amount of energy/mole

75
Q

CO2

(cellular respiration)

A

contains little usable energy

stable, energy exhausted

end product of respiration

76
Q

dehydrogenation

(redox; cellular respiration)

A

during respiration, high energy H atoms removed from organic mlc’s

oxidation reaction

77
Q

reduction

(cellular respiration)

A

acter dehydrogenation, acceptance of H by H acceptor (Oxygen in final step)

energy released by reduction forms high energy phosphate bond in ATP

78
Q

redox net energy

(cellular respiration)

A
  • intial oxidation requires energy
  • net is production
  • energy released in series of step: electron transport chain
  • if in one step, little could be harnessed
79
Q

Glucose Catabolism

A

Degradative oxidation of glucose (energy production)

80
Q

stages of glucose catabolism

A

glycolysis

cellular respiration

81
Q

Glycolysis

A

series of rxns

rxns occur in cytoplasm

mediated by enzymes

leads to:

  • 2 pyruvate
  • production of ATP
  • NAD+ —> NADH
82
Q

pyruvate

A

carboxylate anion of pyruvic acid

key in metabolic pathways

made from glucose via glycolysis

converted to fatty acids through acetyl-CoA

supplies energy to living cells through citric acid cycle (krebs cycle) in presence of oxygen

no oxygen: ferments to produce lactate

83
Q

glycolytic pathway

(glycolysis)

A
  1. glucose

(atp –> adp)

  1. glucose 6-phosphate
  2. fructore 6-phosphate

(atp –> adp)

  1. fructose 1,6-diphosphate
84
Q

glycolytic pathway step 4

A

fructose 1,6-diphosphate split into

  1. dihydroxyacetone phosphate
  2. glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (PGAL)
  • dihydroxyacetone phosphate isomerized –> PGAL; used in subsequent rxns
  • 2 mlc PGAL/1 mlc glucose
  • steps 5-8 occur twice/1 mlc glucose
85
Q

glycolytic pathway (cont’d)

A
  1. 1,3-Diphosphoglycerate

(ADP —> ATP)

  1. 3-Phosphoglycerate
  2. 2-Phosphoglycerate
  3. Phosphoenopyruvate

(ADP —> ATP)

  1. Pyruvate
86
Q

Products of Glycolytic Pathway

A

1 mlc glucose yields:

2 mlc pyruvate

2 ATP used (steps 1,3)

4 ATP produced (2 in 6, 2 in 9)

2 PGAL

2 NADH (one per one PGAL)

87
Q

Substrate Level Phosphorylation

A
  • ATP synthesis occurs during degradation of glucose w/o intermediate mlc (such as NAD+)
  • occurs during glycolysis + krebs cycle
  • free phosphate added to ADP –> ATP
88
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation

A
  • occurs during electron transport chain
  • NADH oxidized to NAD+ –> 2.5 ATP
  • electrochemical or chemiosmotic gradient of protons (H+) across the inner mitochondrial membrane to generate ATP from ADP
89
Q

Net RXN Glycolysis

A

glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ –>

2Pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2H2O

90
Q

After Pyruvate

A

most intial energy not released once in pyruvate form (present in bonds of pyruvate)

91
Q

Pyruvate Degradation

(Glycolysis)

A
  1. anaerobic - pyruvate reduced during fermentation
  2. aerobic - pyruvate further oxidized during cell respiration in mitochondria
92
Q

Fermentation

(Glycolysis)

A
  • def: glycolysis + steps in formation of ethanol or lactic acid
  • produces 2 ATP/1 glucose mlc
  • NAD+ regenerated for glycolysis to continue in absence of O2:
  1. reduce pyruvate into ethanol

or

  1. reduce pyruvate into lactic acid
93
Q

Alcohol Fermentation

A
  • only in yeast and some bacteria
  • pyruvate produced in glycolysis converted to ethanol
  • NAD+ regenerated and glycolysis can continue
94
Q

Lactic Acid Fermentation

A

certain fungi, bacteria, human muscle cells during strenuous activity

oxygen supply to muscle cells lags behind rate of glucose catabolism —> pyruvate generated reduced to lactic acid

NAD+ regenerated when pyruvate is reduced

95
Q

Cellular Respiration

A
  • most efficient catabolic pathway to harvest energy from glucose
  • glycolysis = 2 ATP/1 mol glucose
  • cell resp = 36-38 ATP/1 mol glucose
  • aerobic process - oxygen final acceptor of electrons
  • rxns occur eukaryotic mitochondrion
  • catalyzed by rxn-specific enzymes
96
Q

stages of cellular respiration

A
  1. pyruvate decarboxylation
  2. citric acid cycle
  3. electron transport chain
97
Q

LEARN CELLULAR RESPIRATION

A
98
Q

LEARN CALVIN CYCLE

A
99
Q

Total energy production

A

net amount of ATP produced per molecule of glucose

  1. substrate level phosphorylation

+

  1. oxidative phosphorylation
100
Q

Substrate Level Phosphorylation

A

glycolysis + krebs cycle

glycolysis: 2 ATP

krebs cycle: 1 ATP/turn = 2 ATP

net = 4 ATP

101
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation

A

pyruvate decarboxylation: 1 NADH/turn = 2 NADH

citric cycle: 3 NADH + 1 FADH2 / turn = 6 NADH + 2 FADH2 (per glucose mlc)

1 FADH2 = 2 ATP

8 NADH = 24 ATP

2 NADH reduced during glycolysis cannot cross inner mitochondrial membrane - must transfer electrons to intermediate carrier mlc

intermediate carrier mlc transfers e to second carrier protein complex, Q

these 2 NADH generate 2 ATP / 1 glucose = 4 ATP

24 + 4 = 28 ATP from NADH

4 ATP from FADH2

=

32 ATP by oxidative phosphorylation

102
Q

oxidative + substrate level phosphorylation energy

(eukaryotes)

A

total = 4 ATP (substrate) + 32 ATP (oxidative) = 36 ATP

103
Q

oxidative + substrate level

(prokaryotes)

A

38 ATP

2 NADH of glycolysis do not have mitochondrial membranes to cross - do NOT lose energy!

104
Q

Eukaryotic ATP Production per Glucose Molecule

Glycolysis

A

2 ATP invested (steps 1, 3) (substrate)

4 ATP generated (steps 6, 9) (substrate)

2 NADH x 2 ATP/NADH (step 5) (oxidative)

105
Q

Eukaryotic ATP Production per Glucose Molecule

Pyruvate Decarboxylation

A

2 NADH x 3 ATP/NADH

106
Q

Eukaryotic ATP Production per Glucose Molecule

Citric Acid Cycle

A

6 NADH x 3 ATP/NADH

2 FADH2 x 2 ATP/FADH2

2 GTP x 1 ATP/GTP

107
Q

Eukaryotic ATP Production per Glucose Molecule

Total

A

36 ATP

108
Q

Alternate Energy Sources

A

body uses other energy when glucose is low

preferential order:

  1. other carbs
  2. fats
  3. proteins

substances –> glucose/glucose intermediates –> degraded in glycolytic pathway & citric acid cycle

109
Q

Carbohydrates

(Alternate energy sources)

A
  • disaccharides —> monosaccharides —> glucose/glycolytic intermediates
  • e.g. glycogen stored in liver can be converted into glycolytic intermediate
110
Q

Fats

(Alternate energy sources)

A

stored in adipose tissue

form = triglyceride

lipids —> fatty acids + glycerol (enzyme: lipases)

carried by blood to other tissues for oxidation

111
Q

Fats - Processes

glycerol

(Alternate energy sources)

A

glycerol –> PGAL

PGAL = glycolytic intermediate

112
Q

Fat processes

Fatty acids

(Alternate energy sources)

A

fatty acid –> activated in cytoplasm - 2ATP

activated fatty acid —> mitochondrion —> undergo series of beta-oxidation cycles —> converted to acetyl CoA

acetyl CoA —> TCA cycle

each B- oxidation cycle yields 1 NADH, 1 FADH2

113
Q

Fats

(Alternate energy sources)

extra info

A

yield greatest number of ATP/gram of all high-energy compounds used in cellular respiration

efficient energy storage mlc

glycogen storage = demands for 1 day

fat storage = demands for 1 month

114
Q

Proteins

(Alternate energy sources)

A

amino acids —-> transamination rxn

carbon atoms —-> acetyl CoA, pyruvate, intermediates of citric acid cycle

inermediates —> respective metabolic pathways —> cells produce fatty acids, glucose or ATP

115
Q

Transamination Reaction

A

amino acids lose an amino group to form an alpha-keto acid

116
Q

oxidative deamination

A

removes ammonia mlc from amino acid

117
Q

ammonia

A

toxic substance in vertebrates

fish excrete ammonia

insects and birds convert ammonia to uric acid

mammals convert ammonia to urea for excretion

118
Q

autotroph

A

organism that manufactures its own organic molecules

e.g. glucose, amino acids, fats

from inorganic materials

e.g. CO2, H2O, mineral salts

119
Q

organic molecules and energy

A

organic molecules contain potential energy in form of chemical bonds

120
Q

photosynthesis

A

autotrophs harness radiant energy from sun to form chemical bonds (containing PE)

occurs in algae and multicellular green plants

121
Q

Chemosynthesis

A

used by autotrophic bacteria to obtain energy for manufacture of organic materials

122
Q

CALVIN CYCLE!!!!

A
123
Q
A

Biology (19 decks)

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