Chapter 1.3

Question 1

scientific method

Answer 1

An approach that can be used to obtain accurate information. It includes the following steps: (1) conceptualize the problem, (2) collect data, (3) draw conclusions, and (4) revise research conclusions and theory.

Question 2

theory

Answer 2

An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and facilitate predictions.

Question 3

hypotheses

Answer 3

Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy.

Question 4

psychoanalytic theories

Answer 4

Theories that describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic, and the symbolic workings of the mind have to be analyzed to understand behavior. Early experiences with parents are emphasized.

Question 5

Erikson’s theory

Answer 5

Includes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.

Question 6

Freud’s theory

Answer 6

when children grow up, their focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genitals.
As a result, we go through five stages of psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Our adult personality, is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure at each stage and the demands of reality.

Question 7

Oral stage

Answer 7

Infant’s pleasure centers on the mouth.
Birth to 1,5 Years

Question 8

Anal Stage

Answer 8

Child’s pleasure focuses on the anus.
1,5 to 3 Years

Question 9

Phallic stage

Answer 9

Child’s pleasure focuses on the genitals.
3 to 6 Years

Question 10

Latency stage

Answer 10

Child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills.
6 Years to Puberty

Question 11

Genital stage

Answer 11

A time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family.
Puberty Onward

Question 12

What is Erikson’s theory?

Answer 12

In his theory, eight stages of development unfold as we go through life.

Question 13

What are the 8 stages of Erikson’s theory?

Answer 13

-Trust versus mistrust infancy, first year
-Autonomy versus shame and doubt * 1 to 3 years
-Initiative versus guilt Preschool years 3-5 years
-Industry versus inferiority * 6 years to puberty
-identity versus in
identity confusion 10 to 20 years
-intimacy vs isolation 20s, 30s
-Generativity vs stagnation 40s 50s
-Integrity vs despair 60s onward

Question 14

What happens in the trust vs mistrust?

Answer 14

The development of trust during infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live.

Question 15

What happens in the autonomoy vs shame and doubt

Answer 15

After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy. They realize their will. If infants and toddlers are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt.

Question 16

What happens in initiative vs guilt?

Answer 16

As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they face new challenges that require active, purposeful, responsible behavior. Feelings of guilt may arise, though, if the child is irresponsible and is made to feel too anxious.

Question 17

What happens in industry vs inferiority?

Answer 17

Children now need to direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. The negative outcome is that the child may develop a sense of inferiority—feeling incompetent and unproductive.

Question 18

What happens in identity vs identity confusion?

Answer 18

Individuals need to find out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life.

Question 19

What happens in intimacy vs isolation?

Answer 19

individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships. If young adults form healthy friendships and an intimate relationship with another, intimacy will be achieved; if not, isolation will result.

Question 20

What happens in generativity vs stagnation?

Answer 20

primarily a concern for helping the younger generation to develop and lead useful lives. The feeling of having done nothing to help the next generation is stagnation.

Question 21

What happens in integrity vs despair?

Answer 21

a person reflects on the past. If the person’s life review reveals a life well spent, integrity will be achieved; if not, the retrospective glances likely will yield doubt or gloom—the despair

Question 22

Which 2 theories belong to psychoanalytic?

Answer 22

Freud’s 5 stages theory and Erikson’s 8 stages theory

Question 23

What are some criticism on psychoanalytic theories?

Answer 23

Criticisms include a lack of scientific support, too much emphasis on sexual under- pinnings, and an image of people that is too negative.

Question 24

Piaget’s theory

Answer 24

Theory stating that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development.

Question 25

What are the 4 stages of cognitive development from Piaget’s theory?

Answer 25

-Sensorimotor stage* birth to 2 years
-Preoperational stage* 2 to 7 years
-Concrete operational stage* 7 to 11 years
-Formal operational stage* 11 years through adulthood

Question 26

What happens in the sensorimotor stage?

Answer 26

The infant constructs an understanding of the world
by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.

Question 27

What happens in the preoperational stage?

Answer 27

The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action.

Question 28

What happens in de concrete operational stage?

Answer 28

The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets.

Question 29

What happens in the formal operational stage?

Answer 29

The adolescent reasons
in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways.

Question 30

Vygotsky’s theory

Answer 30

A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.

According to Vygotsky, children’s social interaction with more- skilled adults and peers is indispensable to their cognitive development

Question 31

information-processing theory

Answer 31

Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this theory are the processes of memory and thinking.

Question 32

Which 3 cognitive theories are there?

Answer 32

Piaget’s cognitive development theory
Vygotsky’s sociocultural
The information-processing theory

Question 33

social cognitive theory

Answer 33

The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development.

Question 34

Skinner’s operant conditioning

Answer 34

through operant conditioning the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s occurrence. A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur.

Question 35

ethology

Answer 35

Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods.

Question 36

What did Konrad Lorenz do?

Answer 36

He studied the behavior of greylag geese, which will follow their mothers as soon as they hatch.
Lorenz called this process imprinting—the rapid, innate learning that involves attachment to the first moving object seen.

Question 37

What did John Bowlby do?

Answer 37

Bowlby stressed that attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences throughout the life span. In his view, if this attachment is positive and secure, the individual will likely develop positively in childhood and adult- hood. If the attachment is negative and insecure, life-span development will likely not be optimal.

Question 38

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory

Answer 38

Bronfenbrenner’s environmental systems theory that focuses on five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.

Question 39

The microsystem

Answer 39

This is the setting in which the individual lives. These contexts include the person’s family, peers, school and neighborhood. Most direct interactions with social agents take place

Question 40

The mesosystem

Answer 40

The mesosystem involves relations between microsystems or connections between con- texts. Examples are the relation of family experiences to school experiences, school experi- ences to religious experiences, and family experiences to peer experiences.

Question 41

The exosystem

Answer 41

The exosystem consists of links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate context. For example, a husband’s or child’s experiences at home may be influenced by a mother’s experiences at work.

Question 42

The macrosystem

Answer 42

The macrosystem involves the culture in which individuals live. Remember from earlier in the chapter that culture refers to the behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group of people that are passed on from generation to generation

Question 43

The chronosystem

Answer 43

The chronosystem consists of the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as sociohistorical circumstances. For example, divorce is one transition.

Question 44

What is the contribution of ecological theory

Answer 44

Contributions of ecological theory include a systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems, and attention to connections between environmental systems.

Question 45

Eclectic theoretical orientation

Answer 45

An orientation that does not follow any one theoretical approach but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it.