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Anatomy and Physiology > Ch.2: Basic Chemistry > Flashcards

Ch.2: Basic Chemistry Flashcards

1
Q

Matter

A

• Anything that occupies space and has mass
• Matter may exist as one of three states:
*Solid: definite shape and volume
*Liquid: definite volume; shape of container
*Gaseous: neither a definite shape nor volume

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2
Q

Matter may be changed:

A
  • Physically

* Chemically

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3
Q

Physically changed matter

A
  • Changes do not alter the basic nature of a substance

* Examples include changes in the state of matter (solid, liquid, or gas)

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4
Q

Chemically changed matter

A

Changes alter the chemical composition of a substance

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5
Q

Energy

A
  • The ability to do work

* Has no mass and does not take up space

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6
Q

Kinetic energy

A

Energy is doing work

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7
Q

Potential energy

A

Energy is inactive or stored

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8
Q

Forms of energy:

A
  • Chemical energy is stored in chemical bonds of substances
  • Electrical energy results from movement of charged particles
  • Mechanical energy is energy directly involved in moving matter
  • Radiant energy travels in waves; energy of the electromagnetic spectrum
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9
Q

Energy form conversions

A

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) traps the chemical energy of food in its bonds

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10
Q

Elements

A

Fundamental units of matter

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11
Q

96 percent of the body is made from four elements:

A
  • Oxygen (O)—most common; 65% of the body’s mass
  • Carbon (C)
  • Hydrogen (H)
  • Nitrogen (N)
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12
Q

Atoms

A
  • Building blocks of elements
  • Atoms of elements differ from one another
  • Atomic symbol is chemical shorthand for each element
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13
Q

What are the charges of the basic subatomic particles?

A
  • Protons (p+) are positively charged
  • Neutrons (n0) are uncharged or neutral
  • Electrons (e−) are negatively charged
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14
Q

Number of protons equals:

A
  • Number of electrons in an atom

* Positive and negative charges cancel each other out

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15
Q

Ions

A

Atoms that have lost or gained electrons

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16
Q

Electrons determine an atom’s:

A

Chemical behavior and bonding properties

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17
Q

To identify an element, we need to know the:

A
  • Atomic number
  • Atomic mass number
  • Atomic weight
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18
Q

Atomic number

A
  • Equal to the number of protons that the atom contains
  • Unique to atoms of a particular element
  • Indirectly tells the number of electrons in an atom
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19
Q

Atomic mass number

A

Sum of the protons and neutrons contained in an atom’s nucleus

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20
Q

Atomic weight

A

Approximately equal to the mass number of the element’s most abundant isotope

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21
Q

Isotopes

A
  • Atoms that have the same number of protons and electrons but vary in the number of neutrons
  • Isotopes have the same atomic number but different atomic masses
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22
Q

Radioisotope

A
  • Heavy isotope of certain atoms
  • Tends to be unstable
  • Decomposes to more stable isotope
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23
Q

Radioactivity

A
  • Process of spontaneous atomic decay

* Used to tag and trace biological molecules through the body

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24
Q

Molecule

A

Two or more atoms of the same elements combined chemically

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25
Q

Compound

A

Two or more atoms of different elements combined chemically to form a molecule of a compound

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26
Q

Chemical reactions occur when:

A

Atoms combine with or dissociate from other atoms

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27
Q

Chemical bonds

A

Energy relationships involving interactions among the electrons of reacting atoms

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28
Q

Electrons occupy energy levels called:

A

Electron shells (or energy levels)

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29
Q

Electrons closest to the nucleus are most strongly attracted to its:

A

Positive charge

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30
Q

Distant electrons further from the nucleus are likely to interact with:

A

Other atoms

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31
Q

How to fill the atom’s electrons shells:

A
  • Shell 1 can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
  • Shell 2 can hold a maximum of 8 electrons
  • Shell 3 can hold a maximum of 18 electrons
  • Subsequent shells can hold more electrons
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32
Q

Bonding involves interactions only between electrons in:

A
  • The outermost (valence) shell

* Atoms with full valence shells do not form bonds

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33
Q

Rule of eights

A
  • The key to chemical reactivity
  • Atoms are considered stable when their outermost (valence) shell has 8 electrons
  • Atoms with 8 electrons in the valence shell are considered stable and chemically inactive (inert)
  • The exception to this rule of eights is shell 1, which can hold only 2 electrons
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34
Q

Reactive elements

A
  • Atoms will gain, lose, or share electrons to complete their outermost orbitals when fewer than 8 electrons are in the valence shell
  • Chemical bonding helps atoms achieve a stable valence shell
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35
Q

Ionic bonds

A
  • Form when electrons are completely transferred from one atom to another
  • Allow atoms to achieve stability through the transfer of electrons
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36
Q

Ions

A

Result from the loss or gain of electrons
• Anions have negative charge due to gain of electron(s)
• Cations have positive charge due to loss of electron(s)
Tend to stay close together because opposite charges attract

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37
Q

Covalent bonds

A
  • Atoms become stable through shared electrons
  • Electrons are shared in pairs
  • Single covalent bonds share one pair of electrons
  • Double covalent bonds share two pairs of electrons
  • Can be described as either nonpolar or polar
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38
Q

Nonpolar covalent bonds

A
  • Electrons are shared equally between the atoms of the molecule
  • Electrically neutral as a molecule
  • Example: carbon dioxide
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39
Q

Polar covalent bonds

A
  • Electrons are not shared equally between the atoms of the molecule
  • Molecule has a positive and negative side, or pole
  • Example: water
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40
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A
  • Extremely weak chemical bonds
  • Formed when a hydrogen atom is attracted to the negative portion, such as an oxygen or nitrogen atom, of a polar molecule
  • Responsible for the surface tension of water
  • Important for forming intramolecular bonds, as in protein structure
41
Q

Synthesis reaction

A
  • Atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more complex molecule
  • Energy is absorbed for bond formation
  • Underlies all anabolic (building) activities in the body
42
Q

Decomposition reaction

A
  • Molecule is broken down into smaller molecules
  • Chemical energy is released
  • Underlies all catabolic (destructive) activities in the body
43
Q

Exchange reaction

A
  • Involves simultaneous synthesis and decomposition reactions as bonds are both made and broken
  • Switch is made between molecule parts, and different molecules are made
44
Q

Reversibility is indicated by a:

A
  • Double arrow
  • When arrows differ in length, the longer arrow indicates the more rapid reaction or major direction of progress
  • Most chemical reactions are reversible
45
Q

Factor: ↑ temperature

A

↑ the kinetic energy of the molecules, which in turn move more rapidly and collide more forcefully

46
Q

Factor: ↑ concentration of reacting particles

A

↑ the number of collisions because of increased numbers of reacting particles

47
Q

Factor: ↓ particle size

A

Smaller particles have more kinetic energy and move faster than larger ones, hence they take part in more collisions

48
Q

Factor: Presence of catalysts

A

↓ the amount of energy the molecules need to interact by holding the reactants in the proper positions to interact

49
Q

Inorganic compounds

A
  • Lack carbon
  • Tend to be small, simple molecules
  • Include water, salts, and many (not all) acids and bases
50
Q

Organic compounds

A
  • Contain carbon
  • All are large, covalent molecules
  • Include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
51
Q

What is the most abundant inorganic compound in the body?

A 
• Water
• Accounts for two-thirds of the body’s weight
• Vital properties include:
*High heat capacity
*Polarity/solvent properties
*Chemical reactivity
*Cushioning
52
Q

High heat capacity

A
  • Water absorbs and releases a large amount of heat before it changes temperature
  • Prevents sudden changes in body temperature
53
Q

Polarity/solvent properties

A
  • Water is often called the “universal solvent”
  • Solvents are liquids or gases that dissolve smaller amounts of solutes
  • Solutes are solids, liquids, or gases that are dissolved or suspended by solvents
  • Solution forms when solutes are very tiny
  • Colloid forms when solutes of intermediate size form a translucent mixture
54
Q

Chemical reactivity

A
  • Water is an important reactant in some chemical reactions
  • Reactions that require water are known as hydrolysis reactions
  • Example: water helps digest food or break down biological molecules
55
Q

Cushioning

A
  • Water serves a protective function

* Examples: cerebrospinal fluid protects the brain from physical trauma, and amniotic fluid protects a developing fetus

56
Q

Salts

A

• Ionic compound
• Contain cations other than H+ and anions other than O H−
• Easily dissociate (break apart) into ions in the presence of water
• Vital to many body functions
*Example: sodium and potassium ions are essential for nerve impulses

57
Q

All salts are:

A
  • Electrolytes

* Electrolytes are ions that conduct electrical currents

58
Q

Acids

A
  • Electrolytes that dissociate (ionize) in water and release hydrogen ions (H+)
  • Proton (H+) donors
  • Strong acids ionize completely and liberate all their protons
  • Weak acids ionize incompletely
59
Q

Bases

A
  • Electrolytes that dissociate (ionize) in water and release hydroxyl ions (O H−)
  • Proton (H+) acceptors
60
Q

Neutralization reaction

A

Type of exchange reaction in which acids and bases react to form water and a salt

61
Q

p H measures relative concentration of:

A
  • Hydrogen (and hydroxide) ions in body fluids
  • p H scale is based on the number of protons in a solution
  • p H scale runs from 0 to 14
  • Each successive change of 1 p H unit represents a tenfold change in H+ concentration
62
Q

Buffers

A

Chemicals that can regulate p H change

63
Q

Acidic solutions have a pH below

A
  • 7

* More H+ than O H−

64
Q

Basic solutions have a p H above

A
  • 7

* Fewer H+ than O H−

65
Q

Polymer

A
  • Chainlike molecules made of many similar or repeating units (monomers)
  • Many biological molecules are polymers, such as carbohydrates and proteins
66
Q

Dehydration synthesis

A
  • Monomers are joined to form polymers through the removal of water molecules
  • A hydrogen ion is removed from one monomer while a hydroxyl group is removed from the monomer it is to be joined with
  • Water is removed at the site where monomers join (dehydration)
67
Q

Hydrolysis

A
  • Polymers are broken down into monomers through the addition of water molecules
  • As a water molecule is added to each bond, the bond is broken, and the monomers are released
68
Q

Carbohydrates

A 
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Include sugars and starches
• Classified according to size and solubility in water:
*Monosaccharides
*Disaccharides
*Polysaccharides
69
Q

Monosaccharides

A
  • Simple sugars and the structural units of the carbohydrate group
  • Single-chain or single-ring structures
  • Contain three to seven carbon atoms
  • Examples: glucose (blood sugar), fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose
70
Q

Disaccharides

A
  • Two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis
  • Examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose
  • Too large to pass through cell membranes
71
Q

Polysaccharides

A
  • Long, branching chains of linked simple sugars
  • Large, insoluble molecules
  • Function as storage products
  • Examples include starch and glycogen
72
Q

Lipids are insoluble in water, but soluble in:

A

• Other lipids
• Most abundant are the triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
*Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen

73
Q

Triglycerides, or neutral fats

A 
• Found in fat deposits
• Source of stored energy
• Composed of two types of building blocks—fatty acids and one glycerol molecule
*Saturated fatty acids
*Unsaturated fatty acids
74
Q

Saturated fats (Fatty acid chains of triglycerides)

A
  • Contain only single covalent bonds
  • Chains are straight
  • Exist as solids at room temperature since molecules pack closely together
75
Q

Unsaturated fats (Fatty acid chains of triglycerides)

A
  • Contain one or more double covalent bonds, causing chains to kink
  • Exist as liquid oils at room temperature
  • “Heart healthy”
76
Q

Trans fats

A
  • Oils that have been solidified by the addition of hydrogen atoms at double bond sites
  • Increase risk of heart disease
77
Q

Omega-3 fatty acids

A
  • Found in cold-water fish and plant sources, including flax, pumpkin, and chia seeds; walnuts and soy foods
  • Appear to decrease risk of heart disease
78
Q

Phospholipids

A
  • Contain two fatty acids chains rather than three; they are hydrophobic (“water fearing”)
  • Phosphorus-containing polar “head” carries an electrical charge and is hydrophilic (“water loving”)
  • Charged “head” region interacts with water and ions while the fatty acid chains (“tails”) do not
  • Form cell membranes
79
Q

Steroids

A
  • Formed of four interlocking rings
  • Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some hormones
  • Some cholesterol is ingested from animal products; the liver also makes cholesterol
  • Cholesterol is the basis for all steroids made in the body
80
Q

Proteins

A
  • Account for over half of the body’s organic matter
  • Provide for construction materials for body tissues
  • Play a vital role in cell function
  • Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies
  • Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
  • Built from building blocks called amino acids
81
Q

Amino acid structure

A
  • Contain an amine group (N H2)
  • Contain an acid group (C O O H)
  • Vary only by R-groups
82
Q

Protein structure

A
  • Polypeptides contain fewer than 50 amino acids
  • Proteins contain more than 50 amino acids
  • Large, complex proteins contain 50 to thousands of amino acids
  • Sequence of amino acids produces a variety of proteins
83
Q

Structural levels of proteins

A 
• Primary structure
• Secondary structure
*Alpha helix
*Beta-pleated sheet
• Tertiary structure
• Quaternary structure
84
Q

Primary structure

A

Strand of amino acid “beads”

85
Q

Secondary structure

A
  • Chains of amino acids twist or bend
  • Alpha helix resembles a metal spring
  • Beta-pleated sheet resembles pleats of a skirt or sheet of paper folded into a fan
86
Q

Tertiary structure

A

Compact, ball-like (globular) structure

87
Q

Quaternary structure

A

Result of a combination of two or more polypeptide chains

88
Q

Fibrous (structural) proteins

A
  • Appear in body structures
  • Exhibit secondary, tertiary, or even quaternary structure
  • Bind structures together and exist in body tissues
  • Stable proteins
  • Examples include collagen and keratin
89
Q

Globular (functional) proteins

A
  • Function as antibodies, hormones, or enzymes
  • Exhibit at least tertiary structure
  • Hydrogen bonds are critical to the maintenance of structure
  • Can be denatured and no longer perform physiological roles
  • Active sites “fit” and interact chemically with other molecules
90
Q

Enzymes

A

• Act as biological catalysts
• Increase the rate of chemical reactions
• Bind to substrates at an active site to catalyze reactions
• Can be recognized by their –ase suffix
*Hydrolase
*Oxidase

91
Q

Nucleic acids

A
  • Form genes
  • Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus atoms
  • Largest biological molecules in the body
  • Two major kinds are DNA and RNA
92
Q

Nucleic acids are built from building blocks called:

A

Nucleotides

93
Q

Nucleotides contain three parts:

A
  • A nitrogenous base
  • Pentose (five-carbon) sugar
  • A phosphate group
94
Q

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A
  • The genetic material found within the cell’s nucleus
  • Provides instructions for every protein in the body
  • Organized by complementary bases to form a double-stranded helix
  • Contains the sugar deoxyribose and the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine
  • Replicates before cell division
95
Q

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

A
  • Carries out DNA’s instructions for protein synthesis
  • Created from a template of DNA
  • Organized by complementary bases to form a single-stranded helix
  • Contains the sugar ribose and the bases adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine
  • Three varieties are messenger, transfer, and ribosomal RNA
96
Q

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A
  • Composed of a nucleotide built from ribose sugar, adenine base, and three phosphate groups
  • Chemical energy used by all cells
  • Energy is released by breaking high-energy phosphate bond
97
Q

ADP (adenosine diphosphate) accumulates as ATP is used for:

A

Energy

98
Q

A T P is replenished by oxidation of:

A

Food fuels

Anatomy and Physiology (61 decks)

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