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Biology II > ch. 46 > Flashcards

ch. 46 Flashcards

1
Q

external male organs

A

scrotum and penis

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2
Q

testes

A

male gonads that consist of tightly coiled tubes surrounded by connective tissue

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3
Q

purpose of scrotum

A

sperm cannot be produced at body temperatures, so hangs outside abdominal cavity in mammals where temperature is lower

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4
Q

how long is each seminiferous tubule

A

70cm, 750 in each testis

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5
Q

where does sperm go after the seminiferous tubules

A
  • coiled duct of epididymis
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6
Q

path of sperm in ejaculation

A
  • sperm propelled through muscular vas deferens
  • ejaculatory duct
  • exits penis through urethra
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7
Q

semen

A

composed of 5% sperm and secretions from 3 sets of accessory glands

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8
Q

3 male accessory glands

A
  1. seminal vesicles
  2. prostate gland
  3. bulbourethral glands
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9
Q

seminal vesicles

A

contribute fructose
- 60% of total volume of semen

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10
Q

prostate gland

A

secretes alkaline products directly into urethra through several small ducts

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11
Q

bulbourethral glands

A

secrete alkaline, clear mucus before ejaculation that neutralizes acidic urine remaining in the urethra

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12
Q

how many types of erectile tissue in penis

A

3 cylinders of spongy erectile tissue

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13
Q

sexual arousal and penis

A

erectile tissue fills with blood from arteries (causes erection)

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14
Q

glans

A

head of penis, has thinner skin covering shaft
- more sensitive to stimulation

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15
Q

prepuce/foreskin

A

fold of skin surrounded glans

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16
Q

sexual reproduction

A

creation of offspring by fusion of haploid gametes to create diploid zygote

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17
Q

asexual reproduction

A

creation of offspring without fusion of egg and sperm

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18
Q

budding

A

simple form of asexual reproduction only found among invertebrates
- new ind. arise from outgrowths of existing ones

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19
Q

difference between sex and coitus

A
  • sex - union of gametes
  • coitus - physical union of female and male genitalia accompanies by rhythmic movements
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20
Q

binary fission

A

separation of parent into 2+ ind. of about the same size
- invertebrates

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21
Q

types of asexual reproduction

A
  • budding
  • binary fission
  • fragmentation
  • parthenogenesis
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22
Q

fragmentation

A
  • breaking of body into pieces, some or all of which develop into adults
  • accompanies by regeneration
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23
Q

parthenogenesis

A

development of a new ind. from an unfertilized egg
- mostly invertebrates

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24
Q

is finding a partner easy or difficult?

A

can be challenging

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25
Q

hermaphroditism

A

each ind. has both male and female reproductive systems

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26
Q

2 types of hermaphrodites

A
  1. synchronous
  2. sequential
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27
Q

synchronous hermaphrodites

A

ind. simultaneously male and female

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28
Q

sequential hermaphrodites

A

sex change
- protogynous and protandrous

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29
Q

protogynous hermaphrodites

A

egg products become sperm producers

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30
Q

protandrous hermaphrodites

A

sperm producers become egg producers

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31
Q

spotted hyena females

A
  • bigger than males
  • have pseudopenis (pseudophalluses)
  • both sexes get erections when greeting each other
  • give birth through “penis”
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32
Q

what are reproductive cycles related to

A
  • environmental cues (seasons)
  • hormones
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33
Q

ovulation

A

release of mature eggs at midpoint of female cycle

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34
Q

parthenogenesis of fish, amphibians, and lizards

A
  • doubling of chromosomes after meisos
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35
Q

asexual whiptail lizards

A
  • all females
  • still exhibit mating behaviors (pseudo-copulation)
  • parthenogenesis
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36
Q

twofold cost of sexual reproduction

A

sexual females have half as many daughters as asexual females

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37
Q

when is sexual reproduction beneficial

A

enhance reproductive success of parents when environmental factors change rapidly

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38
Q

when is asexual reproduction beneficial

A

in stable, favorable environments

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39
Q

fertilization

A

union of egg and sperm

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40
Q

external fertilization

A

eggs shed by female are fertilized by sperm in the external environment

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41
Q

favorable environment for external fertilization

A

moist habitat
- sperm can swim to egg
- prevents gametes from drying out

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42
Q

spawning

A

individual cluster in same area to release gametes into the water at the same time
- chemical and environmental signals

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43
Q

internal fertilization

A

enables sperm to reach an egg despite dry external environment

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44
Q

what does internal fertilization require

A

behavioral interactions and compatible copulatory organs
- often pheromones

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45
Q

characteristics of internal fertilization

A
  • fewer gametes
  • higher survivorship of zygotes
  • protection of embryos
  • parental care of young
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46
Q

purpose of shells for eggs of birds and reptiles

A
  • protect against water loss
  • protect against physical damage
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47
Q

where are gametes produced

A

precursor cells in:
- gonads
- undifferentiated tissue

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48
Q

what do elaborate gamete-producing systems include

A

sets of accessory tubes and glands that carry, nourish, and protect gametes/embryos

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49
Q

do insects have separate sexes

A

yes, each with complex reproductive systems

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50
Q

spermatheca

A

where sperm is stored in female insects during copulation

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51
Q

cloaca

A

common opening between external environment and the digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems
- common in nonmammalian vertebrates

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52
Q

monogamy

A

having one mate
- can decrease chance of mate mating w/ another ind.
- females sometimes influence reproductive success of mates

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53
Q

male external organs

A

scrotum and penis

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54
Q

male internal organs

A
  • gonads - produce sperm and hormones
  • accessory glands - secrete products needed for sperm movement
  • ducts - carry sperm and glandular secretions
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55
Q

male gonads

A

testes

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56
Q

testes

A

consist of highly coiled tubes (seminiferous tubules) surrounded by connective tissue

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57
Q

where does sperm form

A

seminiferous tubules

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58
Q

female echidnas

A
  • cloaca
  • branches into different systems (2-branched reproductive tract)
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59
Q

female external reproductive structure

A

clitoris and two sets of labia

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60
Q

female internal organs

A
  • pair of gonads
  • system of ducts and chambers that carry gametes and house embryo/fetus
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61
Q

major vestibular glands

A

produce mucoid secretion that aids in vaginal and vulvar lubrication

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62
Q

how long does it take for the fertilized egg to travel to the uterus

A

6-12 days

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63
Q

sperm capacitation

A

set of natural physical changes that a spermatozoon undergoes to be able to fertilize ovum
- occurs in vivo following ejaculation when spermatozoa come into contact with different fluids of female genital tract

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64
Q

how long as sperm viable in the female reproductive system

A

5 to 6 days

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65
Q

how long are ovum viable after ovulation

A

6 hours

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66
Q

female gonads

A

ovaries - flank uterus in abdominal cavity

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67
Q

what does each ovary contain

A

follicles

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68
Q

follicles

A

consist of partially developed egg (oocyte) surrounded by support cells

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69
Q

path of egg from ovary to uterus

A
  • leaves ovary
  • travels through oviduct/fallopian tube by cilia
  • enters uterus/womb
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70
Q

endometrium

A

uterus lining that contains many blood vessels

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71
Q

where does uterus narrow

A

cervix - opens into vagina

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72
Q

vagina

A

muscular but elastic chamber
- repository for sperm during copulation
- birth canal

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73
Q

vulva

A

where vagina opens to outside
- consist of labia major, labia minor, hymen, and clitoris

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74
Q

clitoris composition

A
  • head - glans
  • glans covered by prepuce - small hood of skin
  • many nerve endings
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75
Q

what do the vagina, labia minor, and clitoris all contain

A

blood vessels

76
Q

mammary glands

A

contain small sacs of epithelial tissue that secrete milk

77
Q

are mammary glands part of the reproductive system

78
Q

gametogenesis

A

production of gametes

79
Q

spermatogenesis

A

formation of sperm
- continuous and prolific

80
Q

how many sperm produced per day

A

75 to 100 million

81
Q

how long does it take for each sperm to develop

82
Q

length of entire sperm production cycle

A

70-75 days

83
Q

how long can motile sperm survive int he female reproductive tract

84
Q

how many sperm are released per ejaculation

A

40-500 million

85
Q

where does spermatogenesis take place

A

seminiferous tubule wall

86
Q

order of spermatogenesis

A
  • primordial germ cell in embryo
    - mitosis
  • spermatogonial stem cell - diploid
    - mitosis
  • spermatogonium - diploid
    - mitosis
  • primary spermatocyte - diploid
    - meiosis I
  • secondary spermatocyte - haploid
    - meiosis II
  • spermatids - haploid
    - differentiation
  • sperm cell - haploid
87
Q

oogenesis

A

development of a mature egg
- prolonged process

88
Q

where do immature eggs form

A

in female, but don’t complete development until years/decades later

89
Q

how many eggs in each ovary at puberty

90
Q

order of oogenesis

A
  • primordial germ cell
    - mitosis
  • oogonium
    - mitosis
  • primary oocytes (present at birth, arrested in prophase of meiosis I)
    - at puberty, completion of meiosis I and onset of meiosis II
  • secondary oocyte
    - arrested at metaphase of meiosis II
  • ovulation, sperm entry
  • completion of meiosis II
  • fertilized egg
91
Q

when is first polar body produced

A

after puberty starts, completion of meiosis I and onset of meiosis II to create secondary oocytes

92
Q

when is second polar body created

A

after ovulation and sperm entry

93
Q

how is spermatogenesis different from oogenesis

A
  1. all 4 products of meiosis develop into sperm, only 1 of four becomes an egg
  2. spermatogenesis occurs throughout adolescence and adulthood
  3. sperm produced continuously w/o prolonged interruptions in oogenesis
94
Q

what control mammalian reproduction

A

hormones from hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and gonads
- hypothalamus - gonadotropin-releasing hormone
- anterior pituitary - release FSH and LH to act on
- gonads - release steroid hormones

95
Q

main sex hormones are what?

A

steroid hormones

96
Q

main androgen

A

testosterone

97
Q

what do estrogens mainly consist of

A

estradiol and progesterone

98
Q

what do sex hormones function in

A
  • gamete production
  • sexual behavior
  • development of secondary sex characteristics
99
Q

what does FSH stimulate in males

A

Sertoli cells to nourish developing sperm

100
Q

what does LH stimulate in males

A

Leydig cells to produce testosterone and other androgens, which promotes spermatogenesis

101
Q

what does testosterone regulate production of

A
  1. GnRH
  2. FSH
  3. LH
    through negative feedback mechanisms
102
Q

Sertoli cells

A
  • secrete hormone inhibin
  • reduce FSH secretion from anterior pituitary
103
Q

what do changes in the ovaries define

A

ovarian cycle

104
Q

what do changes in the uterus define

A

menstrual cycle (uterine cycle)

105
Q

what happens in each menstrual cycle

A
  • endometrium thickens w/ blood vessels in preparation for embryo implantation
  • if no embryo implanted, endometrium shed
106
Q

menstruation

A

shedding of endometrium when no implantation of embryo

107
Q

when does the ovarian cycle begin

A

when hypothalamus released GnRH

108
Q

ovarian cycle steps

A
  • hypothalamus releases GnRH
  • anterior pituitary secretes FSH and LH (stimulate follicle growth)
  • follicles start to make estradiol
  • increase in estradiol increases FSH and LH
  • follicle enlarges to form bulge at surface of ovary
  • follicular phase ends at ovulation, secondary oocyte released
  • luteal phase follow ovulation
  • LH stimulus remaining follicular tissue to form corpus luteum
  • corps luteum secretes progesterone and estradiol
  • reduced LH and FSH secretion
109
Q

what follows ovulation

A

luteal phase

110
Q

what does LH stimulate remaining follicular tissue to form

A

corpus luteum

111
Q

what does corpus lute secrete

A

progesterone and estradiol

112
Q

purpose of progesterone and estradiol secreted by corpus luteum

A

exerts negative feedback on hypothalamus and pituitary to reduce LH/FSH secretion
- prevents maturation of another egg

113
Q

phases of menstrual cycle

A
  • menstrual flow phase
  • proliferative phase
  • secretory phase
114
Q

proliferative phase of menstrual cycle

A

thickening of endometrium
- coordinates with follicular phase

115
Q

secretory phase of menstrual cycle

A

glands develop that secrete nutritive substances to sustain embryo for first 2 weeks

116
Q

menstrual flow phase

A

shedding of endometrium
- coordinates with growth of new ovarian follicles

117
Q

what happens if no embryo implants in endometrium

A

new menstrual cycle begins

118
Q

ectopic

A

cells of uterine lining can sometimes migrate to this abnormal location

119
Q

endometriosis

A

swelling of cells in uterine lining in response to hormone stimulation

120
Q

how many cycles before menopause

121
Q

menopause

A

cessation of ovulation and menstruation

122
Q

is menopause common in animals

A

no - very unusual

123
Q

what type of organisms experience menstrual cycles

A

only humans and some other primates
- sexual receptivity not limited to time frame

124
Q

estrous cycles

A
  • endometrium reabsorbed by uterus
  • sexual receptivity limited to estrus
  • most mammals
125
Q

estrus

A

“heat” period of sexual receptivity
- length/frequency varies among species

126
Q

2 sexual reactions in both sexes

A
  1. vasocongestion
  2. myotonia
127
Q

vasocongestion

A

filling of tissue with blood

128
Q

myotonia

A

increase muscle tension

129
Q

4 phases of sexual response cycle

A
  1. excitement
  2. plateau
  3. orgasm
  4. resolution
130
Q

excitement

A

prepares penis and vagina for coitus (sexual intercourse)

131
Q

plateau phase

A

direction stimulation of genitalia, prepares vagina for receipt of sperm

132
Q

orgasm

A

characterized by rhythmic contractions of reproductive structures

133
Q

orgasm in males

A

semen first released into urethra and then ejaculated from urethra

134
Q

orgasm in females

A

uterus and outer vagine contract

135
Q

resolution phase

A

organs return to normal state and muscles relax

136
Q

conception

A

fertilization of an egg by a sperm

137
Q

where does fertilization occur

138
Q

process by which zygote begins to divide by mitosis

139
Q

blastocyst

A

ball of cells with central cavity that results form division of zygote cells

140
Q

what happens after blastocyst formation

A

embryo implants into endometrium

141
Q

pregnancy/gestation

A

condition of carrying one or more embryos in the uterus

142
Q

what does the duration of pregnancy correlate with

A

body size and maturity of young at birth

143
Q

how many months of human gestation

A

9
- divided into 3 trimesters

144
Q

what does the embryo secrete

A

hormones that signal its presence and regulate mother’s reproductive system

145
Q

human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

A

maintains secretion of progesterone and estrogens during early pregnancy

146
Q

examples where embryos don’t complete development

A
  • spontaneously stop due to chromosomal/developmental abnormalities
  • ectopic pregnancy
147
Q

ectopic pregnancy

A

fertilized egg lodges in fallopian tube

148
Q

where does embryo obtain nutrients during the first 2-4 weeks

A

directly from endometrium

149
Q

outer later of blastocyst

A

trophoblast

150
Q

what does the trophoblast form

A

mingles with endometrium to form placenta

151
Q

how does blood travel to and from the fetus

A
  • blood from embryo travels to placenta through umbilical arteries
  • blood returns through umbilical veins
152
Q

monozygotic twins

A
  • genetically identical
  • splitting of embryo during first month of development
153
Q

dizygotic twins

A
  • fraternal and genetically distinct twins
  • release and fertilization of two eggs
154
Q

first trimester

A

main period of organogenesis

155
Q

organogenesis

A

development of body organs

156
Q

steps of embryo development

A
  1. cleavage
  2. gastrulation
  3. neurulation
  4. organogenesis
157
Q

when are all major structures present in an embryo

158
Q

fetus

A

when all major structures are present at 8 weeks

159
Q

changes in mother during pregnancy

A
  • mucus plug in cervix to protect against infection
  • growth of placenta/uterus
  • cessation of ovulation/menstrual cycle
  • breast enlargement
  • nausea
160
Q

second trimester

A
  • fetus grows and is active
  • fetal movements
  • hormones levels stabilize
  • placenta takes over production of progesterone
161
Q

what hormone maintains pregnancy

A

progesterone

162
Q

third trimester

A
  • fetus grows and fills space within embryonic membranes
163
Q

labor

A

series of strong, rhythmic uterine contractions that push fetus and placenta out of body

164
Q

what is labor regulated by

A

prostaglandins and hormones like estradiol and oxytocin

165
Q

3 stages of labor

A
  1. dilation - thinning and opening of cervix
  2. expulsion - delivery of baby
  3. delivery of placenta
166
Q

lactation

A

production of mother’s milk

167
Q

how can a woman acceptance her “foreign” offspring?

A
  • may be due to suppression of immune response
  • symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis (autoimmune disease) becomes less severe during pregnancy
168
Q

contraception

A

deliberate prevention of pregnancy

169
Q

3 categories of contraceptive methods

A
  1. preventing release of eggs and sperm
  2. keeping sperm and egg apart
  3. preventing implantation of an embryo
170
Q

methods of contraception for males

A
  • vasectomy
  • abstinence
  • condom
  • coitus interruptus
171
Q

methods of contraception for females

A
  • birth control
  • abstinence
  • female condom
  • tubal ligation
  • spermicides, diaphragm, progestin
  • morning-after pill, intrauterine device
172
Q

rhythm method

A
  • natural family planning
  • refrain from intercourse when conception most likely
  • pregnancy rate of 10-20%
173
Q

coitus interruptus

A

withdrawal of penis before ejaculation
- unreliable

174
Q

barrier methods

A

blocks fertilization
- pregnancy rate of less than 10%
- condom, diaphragm

175
Q

intrauterine devices

A

inserted into uterus and interfere with fertilization and implantation
- pregnancy rate: less than 1%

176
Q

female birth control pills

A

hormonal contraceptives with a pregnancy rate of less than 1%

177
Q

only contraceptive effective preventing spread of STDs

A

latex condoms

178
Q

sterilization

A

permanent, prevents release of gametes
- tubal ligation
- vasectomy

179
Q

tubal ligation

A

ties off oviducts

180
Q

vasectomy

A

ties off vas deferens

181
Q

rate of spontaneous abortion/miscarriage

A

1/3 of all pregnancies

182
Q

ultrasound imaging

A

detects fetal condiiton

183
Q

amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling

A

use needle to obtain fetal cells for genetic analysis

184
Q

genetic testing of fetus

A

poses ethical questions and difficult decisions

185
Q

most significant cause of infertility

186
Q

in vitro fertilization (IVF)

A

mixes eggs with sperm in culture dishes and returns embryo to uterus at 8-cell stage

Biology II (43 decks)

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