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Biology II > ch. 42 > Flashcards

ch. 42 Flashcards

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1
Q

how do small molecules move between cells and their surroundings

A

diffusion

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2
Q

why is diffusion only efficient over small distances

A

because the time it takes to diffuse is proportional to the square of the distance

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3
Q

how do most animals exchange materials with the environment?

A

via a fluid-filled circulatory system

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4
Q

cnidarians and circulatory system

A
  • gastrovascular cavities function in both digestion and distribution of substances throughout body
  • body wall enclosing gastrovascular cavity is 2 cells thick
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5
Q

flatworms and circulatory

A

gastrovascular cavity and flat body that minimizes diffusion distances

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6
Q

what does a circulatory system have

A
  1. circulatory fluid
  2. set of interconnecting vessels
  3. muscular pump (heart)
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7
Q

ex. of phylums/organisms with open circulatory system

A
  • insects
  • arthropods
  • some molluscs
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8
Q

open circulatory system

A

hemolymph bathes organs directly

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9
Q

closed circulatory system

A

blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from interstitial fluid

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10
Q

ex. of phylum/organisms with closed circulatory

A
  • annelids
  • cephalopods
  • vertebrates
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11
Q

what does hemolymph lack

A

special cells to help transport oxygen

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12
Q

what is the closed circulatory system called in humans/other vertebrates

A

cardiovascular system

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13
Q

3 main types of blood vessels

A
  1. arteries
  2. capillaries
  3. veins
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14
Q

blood flow progression away from heart and back

A
  • arteries
  • arterioles
  • capillaries
  • venules
    veins
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15
Q

capillary beds

A

networks of capillaries that are sites of the chemical exchange between blood and interstitial fluid

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16
Q

how are arteries and veins distinguished?

A

by direction of blood flow, not O2 content

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17
Q

how many chambers are in vertebrate hearts

A

2+

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18
Q

single circulation

A

blood leaving heart passes through 2 capillary beds before returning

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19
Q

ex. of organisms with single circulation

A

bony fish, rays, sharks
- 2 chambered heart

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20
Q

double circulation

A

oxygen-poor and oxygen-rich blood are mostly pumped separately from right ad left sides of heart

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21
Q

ex. of organisms with double circulation

A

amphibians, reptiles, mammals

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22
Q

in reptiles/mammals, where does oxygen-poor blood flow through to pick up oxygen through the lungs?

A

pulmonary circuit

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23
Q

in amphibians, where does oxygen-poor blood flow through to pick up oxygen through the lungs?

A

pulmocutaneous circuit

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24
Q

where does oxygen-rich blood deliver oxygen

A

through the systemic circuit

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25
Q

does double or single circulation maintain a higher blood pressure

A

double

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26
Q

how many chambers are in the hearts of frogs and amphibians

A

3
- 2 atria and 1 ventricle

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27
Q

amphibian heart process

A

ridge in ventricle diverts most of oxygen-rich blood into systemic circuit and most oxygen-poor blood into pulmocutaneous circuit

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28
Q

what happens to blood flow when a frog is underwater

A

the blood flow to the lungs is nearly shut off

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29
Q

how many chambers in heart of turtles, snakes, and lizards

A

3
- 2 atria, 1 ventricle
- partially divided by incomplete septum

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30
Q

septum in hearts of alligators, caimans, and other crocodilians

A

divides ventricles
- pulmonary/systemic circuits connect where arteries exit heart

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31
Q

how many chambers in heart of mammals and birds

A

4
- 2 atria, 2 ventricles
- left side pumps/receives oxygen-rich, right side pumps/receives oxygen-poor

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32
Q

endotherms (mammals/birds) require more _____ than ectotherms

A

O2

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33
Q

flow of blood to lungs (mammal)

A
  • contraction of right ventricle pumps blood to lungs via pulmonary arteries
  • blood flows through capillary beds in left/right lungs - loads O2, unloads CO2
  • oxygen-rich blood returns to left atrium of heart via pulmonary veins
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34
Q

flow of blood to body (mammal)

A
  • oxygen-rich blood flows into left ventricle and is pumped out to body tissues via systemic circuit
  • blood leaves left ventricle via aorta to arteries
  • first branches are the coronary arteries, supplying heart muscle
  • further branches lead to capillary beds in abdominal organs/hind limbs
  • O2 diffuses from blood to tissues, CO2 diffuses from tissues to blood
  • capillaries rejoin, forming venules, conveying blood to veins then back to heart
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35
Q

where does oxygen-poor blood from the head, neck, and forelimbs enter the heart

A

superior vena cava

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36
Q

where is blood drained from the trunk and hind limbs

A

inferior vena cava

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37
Q

where do the vena cava empty their blood

A

right atrium of heart

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38
Q

how big is the human heart

A

size of clenched fist

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39
Q

walls of atrium and ventricles

A
  • atria - thin walls
  • ventricles - thicker walls - contract more forcefully
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40
Q

cardiac cycle

A

rhythmic cycle in which heart contracts and relaxes

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41
Q

systole

A

contration or pumping phase

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42
Q

diastole

A

relaxation or filling phase

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43
Q

cardiac output

A

volume of blood pumped into the systemic circulation per minute

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44
Q

what does cardiac output depend on

A

heart rate and stroke volume

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45
Q

heart rate

A

number of beats per minute

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46
Q

stroke volume

A

amount of blood pumped in a single contraction

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47
Q

what prevent back flow of blood in the heart?

A

4 valves:
- atrioventricular valves
- semilunar valves

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48
Q

atrioventricular valves

A

separate each atrium and ventricle
- tricuspid and bicuspid

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49
Q

semilunar valves

A

control blood flow to aorta and pulmonary artery
- aortic semilunar, pulmonary semilunar

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50
Q

Lub-dup sound of heart

A

caused by recoil of blood against AV valves (lub) then against semilunar (dup) valves

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51
Q

heart murmur

A

back flow of blood through a defective valve

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52
Q

autorhythmic

A

contract without any signal from the nervous system
- some cardiac cells

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53
Q

sinoatrial (SA) node

A

pacemaker
- sets rate/timing at which cardiac muscle cells contract

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54
Q

electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)

A

recorded impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle

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55
Q

what portions of the nervous system regulate the pacemaker?

A
  • sympathetic (speed up)
  • parasympathetic (slow down)
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56
Q

what is the pacemaker regulated by?

A
  • nervous system
  • hormones
  • temperature
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57
Q

basic anatomy of blood vessels

A

central lumen lined with epithelial layer (endothelium)

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58
Q

endothelium

A

smooth epithelial layer of blood vessels that minimizes resistance

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59
Q

how wide are capillaries?

A

slightly wider than a red blood cell

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60
Q

walls of capillaries

A
  • thin
  • endothelium + basal lamina
  • facilitate exchange of materials
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61
Q

composition of arteries and veins

A

endothelium, smooth muscle, connective tissue

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62
Q

artery walls

A

thick, elastic walls to accommodate high pressure of blood pumped from the heart

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63
Q

vein walls

A

thinner-walled, blood flows back to heart as result of muscle action

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64
Q

what maintains unidirectional flow in veins?

A

valves

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65
Q

what do physical laws governing movement of fluids through pipes affect

A
  • blood flow
  • blood pressure
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66
Q

where is the velocity of blood flow the slowest

A

capillary beds
- result of high resistance and large total cross-sectional area
- allows for exchange of materials

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67
Q

where does blood flow from

A

areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure

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68
Q

where is blood pressure force exerted

A

in all directions - including walls of blood vessels

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69
Q

what plays a role in maintaining blood pressure

A

recoil of elastic arterial walls

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70
Q

what dissipates much of blood pressure

A

resistance to blood flow in narrow diameters of tiny capillaries/arterioles

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71
Q

systolic pressure

A

pressure in arteries during ventricular systole
- highest pressure in arteries

72
Q

diastolic pressure

A

pressure in arteries during diastole
- lower than systolic

73
Q

pulse

A

rhythmic bulging of artery walls with each heartbeat

74
Q

how do homeostatic mechanisms regulated arterial blood pressure

A

by altering diameter of arterioles

75
Q

vasoconstriction

A

contraction of smooth muscle in arteriole walls
- increases blood pressure

76
Q

vasodilation

A

relaxation of smooth muscles in arterioles
- causes blood pressure to fall

77
Q

major inducer of vasodilation

A

nitric oxide

78
Q

potent inducer of vasoconstrction

A

peptide endothelin

79
Q

where is blood pressure generally measured

A

artery in the arm at the same height at the heart

80
Q

normal blood pressure for healthy 20-year-old

A
  • 120 mm Hg systole
  • 70 mm Hg diastole
81
Q

what has a significant effect on blood pressure

A

gravity

82
Q

fainting

A

inadequate blood flow to heat

83
Q

why do animals with long necks require very highs systolic pressure

A

to pump blood great distance against gravity

84
Q

why are there one-way valves in veins

A

blood pressure is low - prevents back flow of blood

85
Q

what is the return of blood enhanced by

A
  • contraction of smooth muscle in venule walls
  • skeletal muscle contraction
86
Q

how many of the capillaries does blood flow through

A

5-10% at any given time

87
Q

true or false: capillaries in major organs are not usually filled to capacity.

A

false

88
Q

2 mechanisms that regulate distribution of blood in capillary beds

A
  1. constriction/dilation of arterioles that supply capillary beds
  2. precapillary sphincters that control flow of blood between arterioles/venules
89
Q

what is blood flow regulated by

A

nerve impulses, hormones, other chemicals

90
Q

capillary function

A

exchange of substances between blood and interstitial fluid

91
Q

what drives fluid out of capillaries

A

blood pressure

92
Q

what pulls fluid back into capillaries

A

blood proteins

93
Q

what is responsible for much of the blood’s osmotic pressure

A

blood proteins

94
Q

is there a net loss of net gain of fluid from capillaries

A

net loss

95
Q

lymphatic system

A

returns excess fluid that leaks out from capillary beds back to circulatory sysem

96
Q

lymph

A

fluid los by capillaries

97
Q

where does the lymphatic system

A

drains into veins in the neck

98
Q

edema

A

swelling caused by disruptions in flow of lymph

99
Q

lymph nodes

A

organs that filter lymph and play an important role in body’s defense

100
Q

what happens to lymph nodes when the body is fighting an infection

A

they become swollen

101
Q

blood composition

A

connective tissue consisting of several kinds of cells suspended in liquid matrix called plasma

102
Q

plasma

A

inorganic salts as dissolved ions, sometimes called electrolytes

103
Q

plasma protein function

A
  • influence blood pH
  • helps maintain osmotic balance between blood/interstitial fluid
  • lipid transport
  • immunity
  • blood clotting
104
Q

what is plasma similar in composition to

A

interstitial fluid
- plasma has higher protein concentration

105
Q

2 types of blood cells

A
  • red blood cells (erythrocytes) - transport O2
  • white blood cells (leukocytes) - defense
106
Q

platelets

A

fragments of cells involved in clotting

107
Q

eryth

A

red

108
Q

leuk

A

white

109
Q

erythrocytes

A
  • most numerous
  • hemoglobin
  • lack nuclei/mitochondria
110
Q

hemoglobin

A

iron-containing protein that transports O2
- each molecule of hemoglobin binds up to 4 molecules of O2

111
Q

sickle-cell disease

A

caused by abnormal hemoglobin proteins that form aggregates
- erythrocyte - sickle shape
- sickled cells can rupture/block blood vessels

112
Q

how many types of white blood cells

A

5

113
Q

leukocytes

A
  • defense by phagocytizing bacteria/debris
  • mounting immune responses against foreign substances
  • in/out of circulatory system
114
Q

where do erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets develop from

A

common source of stem cells in red bone marrow
- ribs, vertebrae, sternum, pelvis

115
Q

erythropoietin

A

stimulates erythrocyte production when O2 delivery is low

116
Q

2 types of stem cells in bone marrow

A
  • lymphoid progenitor cells
  • myeloid progenitor cells
117
Q

coagulation

A

formation of a solid clot from liquid blood

118
Q

how is a clot formed

A

a cascade of complex reactions that converts inactive fibrinogen to fibrin

119
Q

thrombus

A

a blood clot formed within a blood vessel, can block blood flow

120
Q

cardiovascular diseases

A

disorders of the heat and blood vessels
- minor disturbances of vein/heart function to life-threatening disruptions of blood flow to heart/brain

121
Q

atherosclerosis

A

buildup of fatty deposits (plaque) within arteries
- cholesterol key player

122
Q

low-density lipoprotein

A

delivers cholesterol to cells for membrane production
- bad

123
Q

high-density lipoprotein

A

scavenge excess cholesterol for return to liver
- good

124
Q

how does risk for heart disease increase

A
  • with high LDL to HDL ratio - lot of cholesterol around that isn’t getting delivered to cells
  • inflammation
125
Q

myocardial infarction (heart attack)

A

damage/death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries

126
Q

stroke

A

death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually resulting from rupture/blockages of arteries in the head

127
Q

angina pectoris

A

chest pain caused by partial blockage of the coronary arteries

128
Q

stent purpose

A

widens artery and pushes plaque to side

129
Q

gas exchange

A

uptake of O2 from environment and discharge of CO2 to the environment

130
Q

what drives gas exchange?

A

partial pressure of gases

131
Q

partial pressure

A

pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases
- also apply to gases dissolved in liquids (water)

132
Q

why is breathing air not very efficient

A

it is relatively easy

133
Q

why can we not breathe in water

A
  • less O2 available
  • requires greater efficiency
134
Q

how does gas exchange occur across respiratory surfaces

A

diffusion

135
Q

respiratory surfaces in animals

A

skin, gills tracheae, and lungs

136
Q

gills

A

outfoldings of the body that create a large surface area for gas exchagne

137
Q

ventilation

A

moves respiratory medium over the respiratory surface

138
Q

how do aquatic animals ventilate

A

move through water to move water over gills

139
Q

countercurrent exchange system

A

where blood flows in opposite direction to water passing over the gills
- blood is always less saturated with O2 than the water it meets
- in fish gills, more than 80% of O2 dissolved in water is removed as water passes over the respiratory surface

140
Q

tracheal system of insects

A

consists of network of branching tubes throughout body
- tracheal tubes supply O2 directly to body cells
- respiratory/circulatory systems separated

141
Q

what must larger insects do to meet O2 demands

A

ventilate tracheal system

142
Q

lungs

A

infolding of the body surface

143
Q

what do the size and complexity of lungs correlate with

A

animal’s metabolic rate

144
Q

where is air inhaled

A

nostrils
- filtered, warmed, humidified, and sampled for odors

145
Q

pharynx

A

directs air to lungs and food to stomach

146
Q

where does air pass through

A

pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

147
Q

where does gas exchange occur in lungs

A

alveoli

148
Q

how are sounds created

A

exhaled air passes of the vocal cords in the larynx

149
Q

what moves particles up to the pharynx?

A

cilia and mucus that line the epithelium of the air ducts

150
Q

mucus escalator

A

cleans respiratory system and allows particles to be swallowed into esophagus

151
Q

characteristics of alveoli

A
  • lack cilia
  • susceptible to contamination
152
Q

surfactants

A

secretions that coat the surface of the alveoli
- reduce adhesive properies

153
Q

why are preterm babies vulnerable to respiratory distress syndrome

A
  • lack surfactant
  • treatment provided by artificial surfactants
154
Q

how does an amphibian breathe

A
  • ventilates its lungs by positive pressure
  • forces are down trachea
  • reduce breathing
  • CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure)
155
Q

how a bird breathes

A
  • air sacs that function as bellows to keep air flowing through lungs
  • air passes through lungs in one direction only
  • 2 cycles of inhalation and exhalation
  • ventilation highly efficient
156
Q

how to mammals ventilate their lungs

A

negative pressure breathing
- lung volume increases as the rib muscles and diaphragm contract

157
Q

tidal volume

A

volume of air inhaled with each breath

158
Q

vital capacity

A

maximum tidal volume

159
Q

residual volume

A

air that remains in lungs after exhalation

160
Q

what is breathing controlled by

A

involuntary mechanisms in medulla oblongata

161
Q

what does the medulla regulate

A

rate and depth of breathing in response to pH changes in cerebrospinal fluid

162
Q

what monitors O2 and CO2 concentrations in the blood

A

sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries
- these signal breathing control centers

163
Q

where does additional modulation of breathing take place

A

pons

164
Q

what happens in the alveoli

A

O2 diffuses into blood, CO2 diffuses into air

165
Q

respiratory pigments

A

proteins that transport oxygen
- increase amount of oxygen that blood can carry

166
Q

hemocyanin

A
  • copper as oxygen-binding component
  • arthropods and mollusks
167
Q

what animals is hemoglobin found in

A

most vertebrates and invertebrates
- vertebrates - in erythrocytes

168
Q

how much O2 can a single hemoglobin molecule carry

A

4 molecules of O2
- 1 for each iron-containing heme group

169
Q

what does the hemoglobin dissociation curve show

A

a small change in the partial pressure of oxygen can result in a large change in delivery of O2

170
Q

Bohr shift

A

CO2 produced during cellular respiration: 1. lowers blood pH
2. decreases affinity of hemoglobin for O2

171
Q

true or false: hemoglobin plays a minor role in transport of CO2 and assists in buffering the blood

A

true

172
Q

how much CO2 from respiring cells diffuses into the blood and is transported in blood plasma bound to hemoglobin?

A

7%
- remainder diffuses into erythrocytes and reacts with water to form H2CO3 (dissociates into H+ and bicarbonate ions)

173
Q

what do deep-diving air breathers do

A

stockpile O2 and use it slowly

174
Q

where can diving mammals store oxygen

A

in muscles in myoglobin proteins

175
Q

how do diving mammals conserve oxygen

A
  • changing buoyancy to glide passively
  • routing blood to vital tissues
  • deriving ATP in muscles from fermentation once oxygen in depleted

Biology II (43 decks)

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