ch. 40 Flashcards
1
Q
anatomy
A
form
2
Q
physiology
A
biological functions
3
Q
what do physical laws govern
A
strength, diffusion, movement, heat exchange
4
Q
what do properties of water limit
A
possible shapes for fast swimming animals
5
Q
as animals increase in size, what is required?
A
thicker skeletons for support
6
Q
how are nutrients, waste products, and gases exchanged
A
across the cell membranes
7
Q
rate of exchange is proportional to what
A
cell’s surface area
8
Q
amount of exchange material is proportional to what
A
cell’s volume
9
Q
what does a single-celled organism have sufficient surface area for?
A
all necessary exchange
10
Q
what do multicellular organisms with a sac-like body plan have?
A
body walls tat are only 2 cells thick, facilitating diffusion of materials
11
Q
what are most cells in contact with in tapeworms?
A
the environment
12
Q
space between cells
A
filled with interstitial fluid
13
Q
interstitial fluid
A
links exchange surfaces to body cells
14
Q
what does a complex body plan do
A
helps animal living in variable environment to maintain stable internal environment
15
Q
inter
A
between
16
Q
hierarchy of organization of body plants
A
atom, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
17
Q
4 types of animal tissues
A
- epithelial
- connective
- muscular
- nervous
18
Q
where is epithelial tissue found
A
- covers outside of body
- lines organs and body cavities
19
Q
cells in epithelial tissue
A
contains cells that are closely joined
20
Q
types of epithelial tissue
A
- stratified squamous
- pseudostratified columnar
- simple squamous
- simple columnar
- cuboidal
21
Q
connective tissue function
A
binds and supports other tissues
22
Q
connective tissue cells
A
- sparsely packed cells scattered in extracellular matrix
- matrix consists of liquid, jellylike, solid foundation
23
Q
3 types of connective tissue fibers
A
- collagenous fibers
- reticular fibers
- elastic fibers
24
Q
collagenous fibers
A
provide strength flexibility
25
reticular fibers
join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
26
elastic fibers
stretch and snap back to original length
27
2 types of connective tissue cells
1. fibroblasts
2. macrophages
28
fibroblasts
secrete protein of extracellular fibers
29
macrophages
involved in immune system
30
fibro
fiber
31
blast
lay down
32
macro
large
33
phage
eat
34
6 major types of connective tissue
1. loose connective tissue
2. fibrous connective tissue
3. bone
4. adipose tissue
5. blood
6. cartilage
35
loose connective tissue
binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
36
fibrous connective tissue
- found in tendons (bone to muscle)
- found in ligaments (bones at joints)
37
bone
mineralized and forms the skeleton
38
adipose tissue
stores fat for insulation and fuel
39
blood
composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma
40
cartilage
strong and flexible support material
41
muscle tissue function
body movement
42
muscle cell composition
- consist of filaments of proteins actin and myosin enable muscles to contract
- myoblast and myocyte
43
3 types of muscle
skeletal, smooth, cardiac
44
skeletal muscle
- striated
- voluntary
- multinucleated
45
cardiac muscle
- involuntary
- branched
- intercalated discs
46
smooth muscle
- involuntary
47
nervous tissue function
receipt, processing, transmission of information
48
nervous tissue cells
1. neurons (nerve cells) - transmit nerve impulses
2. glial cells (glia) - support cells
49
what does coordination and control depend on
nervous and endocrine system
50
endocrine system
releasees signaling molecules called hormones into bloodstream
51
hormones
- affect 1+ regions throughout body
- relatively slow acting with long lasting effects
52
what does relayed information depend on
signal's pathway, not type of signal
53
regulators
use internal control mechanisms to maintain homeostasis
54
conformers
allows internal condition to vary within certain external changes
55
are animals regulators or conformers
both
56
homeostasis
steady state or internal balance regardless of external environment
57
homeostasis in humans
- body temperatures
- blood pH
- glucose levels
58
for a given variable, fluctuations above/below a set point serves as what?
stimulus
59
what is a stimulus detected by
a sensor
60
what does a control center do
generates output that triggers a response, which returns variable to set point
61
negative feedback
helps return variable to normal range
- most homeostasis in animals
62
positive feedback
amplifies stimulus
- doesn't usually contribute to homeostasis
63
how do set points and normal ranges change
- age
- cyclic variation
64
circadian rhythm
govern physiological changes that occur every 24 hours
65
acclimatization
a temporary change during an animal's lifetime
66
thermoregulation
process by which animals maintain internal temperature within a normal range
67
endothermic animals
generate heat by metabolism
- birds, mammals, endotherms
68
ectothermic animals
gain heat from external sources
- invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles
69
is endothermy or ectothermy more energetically expensive
endothermy
70
do ectotherms or endotherms tolerate greater variation in internal temperature
ectotherms
71
body temperature of poikilotherm
varies with environment
72
poikio
variable
73
body temperature of homeotherm
relatively constant
74
relationship between heat source and body temperature
not fixed (not all poikilotherms are ectotherms)
75
4 physical processes by which organisms exchange heat
1. radiation
2. evaporation
3. convection
4. conduction
76
what system is often involved in heat regulation in mammals?
integumentary system - skin, hair, and nails
77
5 adaptations help animals thermoregulate
1. insulation
2. circulatory adaptations
3. cooling by evaporative heat loss
4. behavioral responses
5. adjusting metabolic heat production
78
insulation
- mammals (whale, walrus) and birds
- skin, feathers, fur, blubber reduced heat flow between animal and its environment
79
circulatory adaptations
- regulation of blood flow near body surface
- end/exotherms can alter amount of blood flowing between body core and skin
- vasodilation
- vasoconstriction
80
vasodilation
blood flow in skin increases, facilitating heat loss
81
vasoconstriction
blood flow in skin decreases, lowering heat loss
82
countercurrent exchange
exchangers transfer heat between fluids flowing in opposite directions and thereby reduce heat loss
- from arrangement of blood vessels in marine mammals and birds
83
what organisms use countercurrent heat exchanges?
some sharks, fish, insect, marine mammals, birds
84
endothermic insects and countercurrent heat exchangers
help maintain high temperature in thorax
85
evaporative heat loss
- evaporation of water through skin
- sweating/bathing moistens skin
- panting - birds and mammals
86
behavioral responses
- ecto, sometimes endoderms
- seek warm places when cold
- seek cooler areas when hot
87
adjusting metabolic heat production
- thermogenesis
88
thermogenesis
adjustment of metabolic heat production to maintain body temperature
- increased by moving and shivering
89
non shivering thermogenesis
takes place when hormones cause mitochondria to increase metabolic activity
90
brown fat
tissue in mammals specialized for rapid heat production
91
where is brown fat found
infants of many mammals and adult mammals that hibernate
92
what does amount of brown fat in human adults depend on
varies depending on temperature of surrounding environment
93
what other animals can raise body temperature through shivering
birds and some nonavian reptiles
94
how can birds and mammals vary their insulation
to acclimatize to seasonal temperature changes
95
what happens to lipid composition of cells with temperature change?
may change
96
antifreeze compounds
when temperatures are subzero, some ectotherms produce these compounds to prevent ice formation in cells
97
what is thermoregulation controlled by
hypothalamus
98
what does the hypothalamus trigger
heat loss or heat-generating mechanisms
99
fever
response to some infections
- reflects an increase in normal range for biological thermostat
100
bioenergetics
overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal
101
what does bioenergetics determine
nutritional need, size, activity, environment
102
how can organisms be classified
by how they obtain chemical energy
103
autotrophs
harness light energy to build energy-rich molecules
- plants
104
heterotrophs
harvest chemical energy from food
- animals
105
what are energy-containing molecules from food used for
making ATP, which powers cellular work
106
what are food molecules used for after staying alive needs are met?
biosynthesis
107
biosynthesis
- body growth and repair
- synthesis of storage material (fat)
- production of gametes
108
what does food become
ATP to glycogen to fat
109
metabolic rate
sum of all energy an animal uses in a unit of time
110
what can a metabolic rate be determined by
- animal's heat loss
- amount of O2 consumed or CO2 produced
- measuring energy content of food consumed and energy lost in waste products
111
anabolism + catabolism =
metabolism
112
basal metabolic rate (BMR)
metabolic rate of endotherm at rest at comfortable temperature
113
standard metabolic rate (SMR)
metabolic rate of ectotherm at rest at specific temperature
114
what do both types of metabolic rates assume
non growing, fasting, non stressed animal
115
do ectotherms or endotherms have lower metabolic rate
ectotherms
116
factors influencing metabolic rates
age, sex, size, activity, temperature, nutrition
117
what is metabolic rate proportional to
body mass to the power of three-quarters
118
do smaller or larger animals have a higher metabolic rate per gram
smaller animals
119
what does a higher metabolic rate of smaller animals lead to
higher oxygen delivery rate, breathing rate, heart rate, greater blood volume
- compared to larger animals
120
torpor
physiological state of decreased activity and metabolism
- enables animals to save energy while avoiding difficult/dangerous conditions
121
hibernation
long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity
122
estivation
summer toropor
- enables animals to survive long periods of high temperatures and scarce water
123
daily torpor
- exhibited by many small mammals and birds
- adapted to feeding patterns
124
simple squamous
lung sacs
125
pseudostratified columnar
respiratory tract
126
stratified squamous
skin, esophagus
127
simple columnar
intestine
128
simple cuboidal
kidney
