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NEUR479 > Ch 23, 25, 26 > Flashcards

Ch 23, 25, 26 Flashcards

1
Q

neural tube

A

primitive brain/sheet of cells rolls up to form this structure, will develop into the brain and spinal cord

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2
Q

apoptosis

A

genetically programmed cell death

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3
Q

what are the 7 stages of brain development?

A
  1. cell birth (neurogenesis; gliogenesis)
  2. cell migration
  3. cell differentiation
  4. cell maturation (dendrite and axon growth)
  5. synaptogenesis (formation of synapses)
  6. cell death and synaptic pruning
  7. myelogenesis (formation of myelin)
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4
Q

anencephaly

A

cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, and midbrain are absent

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5
Q

holoprosencephaly

A

cortex forms as a single undifferentiated hemisphere

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6
Q

lissencephaly

A

brain fails to form sulci and gyri and corresponds to that of a 12-week embryo

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7
Q

micropolygyria

A

gyri are more numerous, smaller, and more poorly developed than typical

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8
Q

macrogyria

A

gyri are broader and less numerous than typical

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9
Q

microencephaly

A

development of the brain is rudimentary and the person has low-grade intelligence

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10
Q

porencephaly

A

cortex has symmetrical cavities where cortex and white matter should be

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11
Q

hetertopia

A

displaced islands of gray matter appear in the ventricular walls or white matter, caused by aborted cell migration

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12
Q

callosal agenesis

A

entire corpus callosum or a part of it is absent

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13
Q

cerebellar agenesis

A

parts of the cerebellum, basal ganglia, or spinal cord are absent or malformed

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14
Q

neural stem cells

A

multipotential, have an extensive capacity for self-renewal

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15
Q

subventricular zone

A

consists of neural stem cells that line the ventricles

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16
Q

progenitor (precursor cells)

A

formed from neural stem cells, can also divide but eventually produce nondividing cells (neuroblasts/glioblasts)

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17
Q

neuroblasts/glioblasts

A

nondividing cells formed from progenitor cells that mature into specialized neurons/glial cells

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18
Q

radial glial cells

A

fibre extends from the subventricular zone to the cortical surface along which neurons migrate to the corresponding function

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19
Q

athetosis

A

slow, involuntary movement

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20
Q

dystonia

A

imbalances in muscle tone

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21
Q

growth spurts

A

irregularly occurring periods during which the brain increases in mass suddenly

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22
Q

outline Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

A
  1. sensorimotor (birth to 18-24 months): experiences the world through senses and actions, object permanence, stranger anxiety
  2. preoperational (2-6 years): represents things with words and images but lacks logical reasoning, pretend play, egocentrism, language development
  3. concrete operational (7-11 years)” thinks logically about concrete events, grasps concrete analogies and performs arithmetical oeprations, conservation, mathematical transformations
  4. formal operational (more than 12 years): reasons abstractly, abstract logic, potential for mature moral reasoning
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23
Q

brain plasticity

A

the nervous system’s potential for physical or chemical change that enhances its adaptability to environmental change and its ability to compensate for injury

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24
Q

amblyopia

A

deficits of vision without obvious impairment of the eye

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25
Q

what are 3 ways that the brain could show plastic changes that support recovery after injury?

A
  1. changes in the organization of the remaining intact circuits in the brain
  2. generation of new circuitry
  3. generation of neurons and glia to replace at least some lost neurons
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26
Q

neurotrophic factors

A

chemical compounds that support growth and differentiation in developing neurons and may act to keep neurons alive in adulthood

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27
Q

chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)

A

a progressive degenerative disease found in individuals with a history of multiple concussions and other closed head injuries

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28
Q

long term potentiation (LTP)

A

long term change in the efficiency of synapses (can be achieved by high frequency electrical stimulation)

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29
Q

kindling

A

the development of persistent seizure activity after repeated exposure to an initially subconvulsant stimulus

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30
Q

what are the 10 principles of brain plasticity?

A

1) plasticity is common to all nervous systems, and the principles are conserved
2) plasticity can be analyzed at many levels
3) the two general types of plasticity derive from experience
4) similar behavioural changes can correlate with different plastic changes
5) experience-dependent changes interact
6) plasticity is age-dependent
7) plastic changes are time-dependent
8) plasticity is related to an experience’s relevance to the animal
9) plasticity is related to the intensity or frequency of experiences
10) plasticity can be maladaptive

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31
Q

experience-expectant plasticity

A

occurs largely during development, for different brain systems to develop requires specific types of experience

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32
Q

experience-dependent plasticity

A

reflects brain changes necessary to modify neuronal ensembles that are already present

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33
Q

what are 4 conclusions of functional imaging studies after cerebral injury?

A

1) if the primary sensorimotor cortex survives a stroke, some functional improvement is likely with the passage of time
2) activation of motor areas during limb movements recruits cortical areas along the rim of cortical injury
3) the motion of stroke patients activate much larger cortical areas, especially parietal and premotor areas, than do similar movements by controls
4) reorganization is not restricted to one hemisphere: similar changes take place bilaterally
5) capacity for reorganization declines with increasing size of stroke and increasing age
6) variability among stroke victims is considerable

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34
Q

what are 5 major experimental therapeutic approaches to recovery after brain damage?

A

1) rehabilitation procedures consisting of a variety of experiential, behavioural, and psychological therapies
2) pharmacological therapies intended to promote recovery in the immediate postsurgery period
3) brain stimulation increases brain activity
4) brain-tissue transplants and stem-cell induction techniques are being developed in the hope of restoring healthy brain function
5) diet provides the building blocks for plastic changes

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35
Q

constraint-induced movement therapy

A

place the unaffected limb in a sling and force the patient to perform daily activities with the impaired limb, goal is to stimulate plastic changes in the brain that lead to an enlargement of the motor representation of the affected arm and hand.

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36
Q

neurologist

A

a physician specializing in the treatment of brain injury or dysfunction

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37
Q

cerebral vascular accident (CVA) / stroke

A

the sudden appearance of neurological symptoms as a result of interrupted blood flow

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38
Q

infarct

A

an area of dead or dying tissue resulting from an obstruction of blood vessels supplying the area

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39
Q

ischemia

A

any group of disorder in which the symptoms are caused by vessel blockage preventing a sufficient supply of blood to the brain

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40
Q

thrombosis

A

some of the blood in the vessel has coagulated to form a plug or clot that has remained at the place of its formation

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41
Q

embolism

A

a clot or plug brought through the blood from a larger vessel into a smaller one, where it obstructs circulation

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42
Q

cerebral arteriosclerosis

A

thickening and hardening of the arteries

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43
Q

cerebral vascular insufficiency/transient ischemia

A

temporary ischemia

44
Q

migraine strokes

A

experienced as a transient ischemic attack with a variety of neurological symptoms

45
Q

cerebral hemorrhage

A

massive bleeding into the substance of the brain

46
Q

angiomas

A

congenital collections of abnormal blood vessels that divert the normal flow of blood

47
Q

arteriovenous malformations (AVM)

A

masses of enlarged cortical vessels that are supplied by one or more large arteries and are drained by one or more veins

48
Q

aneurysms

A

vascular dilation resulting from localized defects in a vessel’s elasticity

49
Q

metabolic syndrome

A

a combination of metabolic disorders, including obesity and diabetes, which collectively increases the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases and diabetes

50
Q

coup

A

bruise that develops at the site of damage

51
Q

countrecoup

A

bruise that forms opposite to site of blow

52
Q

hematoma

A

growing mass from blood trapped within the skull, exerts pressure on surrounding structures

53
Q

coma

A

loss of consciousness

54
Q

epilepsy

A

brain disorder caused by seizure (abnormal, spontaneous discharges of brain neurons as a result of scarring from injury, infections, or tumours)

55
Q

symptomatic seizures

A

can be identified with a specific cause

56
Q

idiopathic seizure

A

appears to arise spontaneously and in the absence of other CNS diseases

57
Q

what are the 3 particular symptoms in epilepsy?

A

1) onset of aura (a subjective sensation, perceptual experience, or motor phenomenon that precedes and marks the onset of an epileptic seizure or migraine)
2) loss of consciousness
3) movement

58
Q

focal seizures

A

begins in one place and then spreads

59
Q

generalized seizures

A

bilaterally symmetrical, without focal onset, can be characterized by loss of consciousness and stereotyped motor behaviour

60
Q

what are the 3 stages of generalized seizures?

A

1) tonic stage - body stiffens and stops breathing
2) clonic stage - rhythmic shaking occurs
3) postseizure - postictal depression; patient loses affect and is confused

61
Q

akinetic seizures

A

usually seen in children, very brief duration

62
Q

myoclonic spasms

A

massive seizure that basically consists of a sudden flexion/extension of the body

63
Q

tumour/neoplasm

A

mass of new tissue that persists and grows independently of its surrounding structures and has no physiological use

64
Q

glioma

A

arise from glial cells and infiltrate the brain substance

65
Q

meningiomas

A

growths attached to meninges, grow outside the brain

66
Q

metastatic tumour

A

established from a transfer of tumour cells from some other region of the body

67
Q

what are 3 types of brain tumours?

A

1) glioma
2) meningioma
3) metastatic tumour

68
Q

migraine

A

familial disorder characterized by recurrent attacks of headache in variable intensity, frequency, and duration

69
Q

classic migraine

A

begins with an aura

70
Q

common migraine

A

no clear aura but gastrointestinal or other “signal” may presage an attack

71
Q

cluster headache

A

unilateral pain in the head or face, rarely lasts longer than 2 hours but recurs repeatedly before disappearing

72
Q

hemiplegic migraine

A

loss of movement on one side of the body

73
Q

ophthalmologic migraine

A

loss of movement of the eyes

74
Q

muscle-contraction headaches (tension/nervous headaches)

A

result from sustained contractions in the muscles of the scalp and neck caused by constant stress and tension

75
Q

nonmigrainous vascular headaches

A

associated with dilation of cranial arteries

76
Q

ergotamine

A

compounds can be useful for treating heache; constrict cerebral arteries, reduces dilation/source of pain

77
Q

infection

A

the invasion of the body by disease - produced by (pathogenic) microorganisms and the reaction of the tissues to their presence and to the toxins they generate

78
Q

how do infections kill neural cells?

A

1) interfering with blood supply
2) disturbing glucose/oxygen metabolism
3) altering cell-membrane properties
4) formation of pus
5) causing edema

79
Q

what are 4 types of CNS infections?

A

1) viral infection
2) bacterial infection
3) mycotic infection (fungus)
4) parasitic infections

80
Q

viral meningitis

A

inflammation of meninges caused by infection

81
Q

bacterium

A

any micro-organism that has no chlorophyll and multiplies by cell division

82
Q

bacterial meningitis

A

meninges infected by bacteria and becomes inflamed

83
Q

brain abscesses

A

begins as a small focus of purulent (pus-producing) bacteria that cause necrosis of cells in the affected region, produced by a variety of bacteria, secondary to infection elsewhere in the body

84
Q

parasite

A

an organism that lives on or within another living organism, at the host’s expense

85
Q

amebiasis

A

caused by infestation of a protozoan, results in encephalitis and brain abscesses

86
Q

malaria

A

caused by protozoa transmitted by bites of infected mosquitoes, infects brain capillaries, produces local hemorrhages & subsequent neuronal degeneration

87
Q

myasthenia gravis

A

severe muscle weakness as a result of muscle receptor dysfunction

88
Q

poliomyelitis

A

infectious disease caused by a virus with special affinity for spinal cord motor neurons and sometimes for the motor neurons of the cranial nerves

89
Q

multiple sclerosis

A

a disorder of myelinated motor fibres, characterized by a loss of myelin, mostly in motor tracts but also in sensory tracts

90
Q

paraplegia

A

caused by complete transection of the spinal cord, both lower limbs are paralyzed

91
Q

quadriplegia

A

paralysis of all four limb

92
Q

Brown-Sequard syndrome

A

refers to the consequences of a unilateral transection through the spinal cord

  • loss of pain and temperature on contralateral side
  • loss of fine touch, pressure sensation, voluntary movement of distal structures on ipsilateral side
93
Q

hemiplegia

A

loss of voluntary movements on one side of the body resulting from damage to the neocortex and basal ganglia contralateral to the motor symptoms

94
Q

Babinski sign/extensor planar response

A

scratching sole of foot causes downward flexion of all toes

95
Q

abdominal reflex

A

stroking causes abdominal muscles to retract

96
Q

cremasteric reflex

A

in males, stroking of the inner thigh causes testicle retraction

97
Q

narcolepsy

A

excessive sleep/brief sleep episodes including REM sleep

  • sleep attacks
  • cataplexy
  • sleep paralysis
  • hypnagogic hallucination
98
Q

sleep attacks

A

brief, irresistible sleep episodes that last about 15 minutes and can occur at any time

99
Q

cataplexy

A

complete loss of muscle tone or sudden paralysis that results in buckling of the knees/complete collapse

100
Q

sleep paralysis

A

occurs in transition between wakefulness and sleep

101
Q

hypnagogic hallucination

A

episodes of auditory, visual, or tactile hallucination during sleep paralysis as an affected person is falling asleep or waking up

102
Q

insomnia

A

inadequate sleep or inability to fall asleep/frequent arousal from sleep

  • sleep apnea
  • obstructive sleep apnea
  • central sleep apnea
103
Q

sleep apnea

A

inability to breathe during sleep

104
Q

obstructive sleep apnea

A

occurs mainly in the course of dreaming, collapse of the oropharynx during sleep paralysis

105
Q

central sleep apnea

A

CNS disorder, failure of the diaphragm and accessory muscles to move

NEUR479 (16 decks)

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