Area 2- child Flashcards
what are the 2 aspects looked at in background of topic 2
risk taking behaviours and brain development
what age is adolescence
12-19
when does the brain fully develop
25
when are there the most neurones
childhood
why is the brain classed as hierarchical
grows inside out - bottom is biology, top is psychology- takes longer to develop
what is the limbic system
collection of brain structures including amygdala and is connected to ventral striatum and nucleus accumbens
when does the limbic system develop and what does it do
through childhood and adolescence
process emotional experiences and regulate emotions
what is the cerebral cortex
thin layer covering most of the brain -most of thinking takes place and is divided into a number of cortices
what is the frontal cortex
controls high cognitive functions that psychologists call executive functions such as problem solving and decision making
what is the visual/auditory cortex
sensory processing of information takes place
what is the motor cortex
movement related information is processed
when does the cerebral cortex reach maturity
late adolescence - takes control of limbic system
what is synaptogenesis/ when does it take place/ what is it useful for
process of new synapses forming between neurones - axons and dendrites grow towards each other to form networks
takes place before birth and continues postnatally- exuberant synaptogenesis where a million synapses are formed every second
more synapses- greater cognitive processing
brains become less fixed and more open to alteration through learning and experience
what percentage of weight is the brain at birth compared to adult brain weight
25% but by 2 is 75%
what is myelination
myelin- fatty substance that insulates neurones to allow neurones to conduct electrical impulses more efficiently e.g., hand eye coordination improves as neurones become myelinated
when is myelination the most rapid
first 2 years
what is meant by exuberant synaptogenesis being genetically programmed
produce many more synaptic connections than necessary- twice as many synapses in 3 year old compared to adult brain
what is synaptic pruning
fine tunes brain structures and functioning and works by use it or chose it principle - neurones that are used most often experience greater neurotransmitter activity which strengthens synapses but inactive ones are pruned - gives organisation of specialised areas for certain functions
those that survive pruning become myelinated
what did willoughby find
morality increases in adolescence across western cultures as do unintentional injuries
many disabilites and deaths are preventable but often linked with risk taking behaviours
what is the dual system theory - sternburg
risk taking is directed by interaction of two brain systems that mature at different times
what is the ventral striatum
emotional regulating system - matures in early adolescence
changes are due to increased activity of neurotransmitter dopamine
what does the ventral striatum include
nucleus accumbens- brains reward system- sensation seeking behaviour
what age does the VS have greater sensitivity to rewards
adolescence
what did johnston find
changes in VS are almost exactly matched with increase in arrests for criminals that peek mid/late adolescence and sex difference males peak at 19, females at 16
what is the pre frontal cortex
cognitive control system, linked to planning, decision making, goal directed behaviour and ability to asses risks
why doesn’t the prefrontal cortex reach full maturity until young adulthood
undergoes synaptic pruning
what are the consequences of the PFC not maturing until young adulthood
cannot have executive control over VS and NA that rewards sensation seeking behaviours associated with risk taking
when does the imbalance of 2 brain regions occur
adolescence - impulsive
what did Meyer and Bucci do
lab experiment to mimic imbalance in adult rats and decreased the activity of PFC whilst increasing activity of NA
what did Meyer and Bucci find
rats took twice as long as control group to learn inhibit response to an expected reward
what’s meant by early effects of stress
evidence that early stressful experiences can predispose individuals to later risk taking behaviours by affecting brain development
what did Romer say
the more stress a child experiences, the more likely they are to engage in risky behaviour in adolescence
what did kotch et al. do and find
longitudinal study of children at risk of neglect
found parental neglect of 2 year old predicts aggressive behaviour at the age of 8 - no significant effect after 8
what does Kotch’s findings mean
critical period- once period is over less likely to be affected by stress
what did Fareri + Tottenham
early neglect causes lasting damage to the amygdala and VS both involved in regulating emotion.
what did de bellis suggest
neurotransmitters and hormones released during stressful experiences may damage PFC which reduces its moderating influence on the VS during adolescence , resulting in more risk taking behaviour
What is the background of galvan
Adolescence has heightened sensitivity to reward and an increased response of ventral striatum as they anticipate an unexpected reward
What is subject value
Value individual places on stimulus (choice)
What is expected value
Sum of all possible outcomes of a choice multiplied by probabilities
What is aim 1 of galvan
Whether adolescence are more sensitive than adults to increased EV (accept more gambles)
What is aim 2 of galvan
Adolescents show greater ventral striatum activation as EV increased , compared to adults
What is aim 3 of Galvan
Whether adolescence who show heightened VS even after matching with adults on number of gambles accepted
What is the method of Galvan
Quasi experiment
IV-adult /adolescence
DV- number of gambles accepted by the ppt and activity in ventral striatum
What is the sample of Galvan
19 adults , 22 adolescents
Self-selected - posters and database of people who previously taken place in research at UCLA
All healthy, no psychiatric disorders or medication or metal
Informed consent - adolescence parents and themselves accepted
What is the intake phase of Galvan
Intake : gave details of monthly spending money - see value they place on monetary rewards
Adults outgoings a month: $460, adolescents $52
End of session given $20 to be used as playing money to give them ownership of money that they could loose or gain - prevents ‘house money effect’ where people gamble money because it’s not there’s
What is the FMRI phase
During FMRI scanner - complete a gambling task where they are shown a screen spinner , half of it how much they can gain, half what they can loose , which counterbalances as it swaps sides to prevent order effects and demand characteristics.
What are the fixed trials
48 trials
24- only loose , 24 only gain which they knew they weren’t representing risk taking
Paid $6-19
What is the mixed gamble
144- 50/50
£7.50
Decided if they would accept or gamble for real money - money taken or added from their payment for participation
What are the results of aim 1
Increasing EV made acceptance of gambling more likely greater in adulthood adults perhaps because they are more responsible over there money because they’re PFC is fully developed - more rational with decision making
But for no risk - acceptance didn’t change for adults
What are the results of aim 2
As EV increased , activation in superior medical PFC
Increasing EV decreases activation in areas such as amygdala and hippocampus, left ventral striatum increases
What are the results of aim 3
Adult that acts like adolescence still respond to reward like adolescence
What is the conclusion of Galvan
Hyper activation of reward in adolescence may be normative ontogenetic - development of organisms - ventral striatum in adolescence is more active to prep them for like biological functions
Maturational changes in neural repress of valuation - adults value their money more
What is the graduated driving program
Teens have to undergo a extended period of supervised driving by someone over the aged of 21 who is experienced at driving , they must compete this course over 9 months doing both daylight and night hours , then they are unsupervised but only in daylight then full privileges at 18 - different in every state
What did Dee find in terms of GDP
Reduces fatalities in 15-17 year olds
What did Romana find in terms of GDP
Reduced speeding related fatalities amounts white, African American , Asian adolescents but for Hispanic they benefitted most for a reduction in alcoholic related deaths
What is the nurse visitation programme
Intervene early in the child’s life as early stress damages PFC which later leads to risk taking behaviours - under age 2 is critical period
What did olds et al do
Developed nurse visitation programme
Reduce stress in parents- several weeks before birth and 2 1/2 years after, targets mother who is going through life changing event to provide support and advice to cope with stressors that could provoke mistreatment
What other ways are there that could prevent risk taking behaviours
Punishment - operant conditioning
Role models- SLT
Social skills training
Healthy Brian food - omega 3
CBT
Situation changes e.g. cameras
