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ANATOMY + PHYSIOLOGY Flashcards

1
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
5 functions

A
  1. large ga sa between air and blood
  2. Moves air to and from lung surfaces
  3. Protect respiratory surfaces from outside environment
  4. Produce sound
  5. olfactory sense
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2
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what are the 2 portions of the respiratory tract

A

CONDUCTING PORTION :
nasal cavity - terminal bronchioles

RESPIRATORY PORTION:
bronchioles, alveoli

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3
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
how many times do the airways branch?

A

23

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4
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what is the difference between the left and right lung?

A

right lung: 3 lobes inc middle lobe

left lung: 2 lobes only

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5
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: RESPIRATORY MUCOSA

1) 2 layers

2) what part of the respiratory system does it line?

3) what underlines it

A

1) epithelial layer
areolar layer

2) conducting portion

3) lamina propria

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6
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - respiratory mucosa

1) what feature does the upper resp. system include

2) in the conducting portion of the lower resp. , what is the feature and what does it do

A

1) mucous glands

2) smooth muscle, allow bronchi constriction, dilation

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7
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
upper respiratory system (4)

A

nose
nasal cavity
sinuses
pharynx

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8
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
lower respiratory system (5)

A

larynx
trachea
bronchus
bronchioles
alveoli

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9
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - nasal cavity

1) where does air enter?

A

1) nostrils, external name — nasal vestibule

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10
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - nasal cavity

what is the first particle filtration system?

what does it flow through next? (hint: 3 of them)

A

nasal hairs In nasal vestibule

through 3 nasal meatuses

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11
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

what are the 2 types of palate?
where are they?
what do they separate?
what do they form?

A

HARD PALATE:
nasal cavity floor
separate nasal + oral cavities
roof of mouth

SOFT PALATE:
back of hard palate
divide superior nasopharynx from lower pharynx

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12
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - pharynx

1) what 2 systems is this chamber shared by?
2) where is it located to and from?
3) what are the 3 divisions?

A

1) respiratory + digestive

2) from internal nares – larynx + esophagus entrance

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13
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - pharynx

what are the 3 divisions?

A

nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngopharynx

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14
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - larynx

what does it surround?
what sort of structure is it?

A

glottis (lid to stop food entering)
cartilaginous

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15
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1) how is sound produced?
2) how is sound variation produced?
3) what is the name of sound production at the larynx

A

1) air passing through glottis
vibrate vocal folds , sound waves

2) tension on vocal fold

3) phonation

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16
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - bronchi

1) name of the internal ridge that separates R + L primary bronchi

2) which primary bronchus has the larger diameter and steeper descent

3) where do the primary bronchus travel to
+ along what surface of the lung

A

1) carina
2) Right primary bronchus
3) hilium , medial surface of lung

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17
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what forms the bronchial tree

A

primary bronchi + their branches

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18
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - respiratory volumes

1) INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOL
2) TIDAL VOL
3) FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY
4) INSPIRATORY CAPACITY

A

1) vol of gas inspired after normal tidal inspiration
2) vol of gas inspired/expired during normal breath
3) gas in lungs after normal expiration
4) max gas inspired

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19
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - respiratory volumes

5) EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOL
6) RESIDUAL VOL
7) VITAL CAPACITY
8) TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY

A

5) vol of gas expired at end of tidal expiration
6) vol of gas in lungs after max expiration
7) max vol of gas expired after max inspiration
8) total gas vol in lungs after max inspiration

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20
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

what does the primary bronchi branch to form?

A

secondary bronchi (lobar bronchi)

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21
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

what Is the name of the branches within the lungs?

A

intrapulmonary bronchi

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22
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

what does the secondary bronchi branch to form?
what do these do?

A

segmental bronchi

supply air to single bronchopulmonary segment

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23
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Tertiary bronchus branch into _________ ________ , which then branch into _________ __________

A

multiple bronchioles
terminal bronchioles

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24
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

1) bronchodilation
2) bronchoconstriction

what is happening?
what is it caused by?

A

1) bronchial airways dilating , sympathetic ANS activation

2) parasympathetic ANS activation / histamine release

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25
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

what’s the difference between external + internal respiration?

A

EXTERNAL : o2 co2 exchange with environment

INTERNAL : cellular respiration

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26
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

what is pulmonary ventilation?

A

physical movement of air in + out of respiratory tract

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27
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

what is Boyle’s Law?

A

P = 1/V

p = pressure, v = volume
shows relationship between gas pressure and volume

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28
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

describe the process of breathing (INSPIRATION)

A
  1. initiated by respiratory control centre in medulla
  2. diaphragm + intercostals contract
  3. diaphragm moves down
  4. external intercostals move ribs up and out
  5. thoracic cavity increased
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29
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

describe surface tension

A

thin film of liquid around alveoli
surfactant molecules attracted to each other, helps passive recoil of alveoli

elastic recoil

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30
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - quiet breathing

1) is the inhalation/exhalation passive or active?

2) name for deep breathing? dominated by?

3) name for shallow breathing? dominated by?

A

1) activate inhalation
passive exhalation

2) diaphragmatic breathing, diaphragm

3) costal breathing, ribcage movements

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31
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - forced breathing

1) AKA:

2) inhalation/exhalation active or passive?

3) what is it assisted by?

A

1) hyperpnea

2) active

3) accessory muscles

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32
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

equation which shows:
vol of air moved each minute

A

VE = f x VT

ve = vol of air moved each min
f = breaths per min
vt = tidal vol

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33
Q

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
equation which shows:
areolar ventilation

A

VA = f x (VT - VD)

va = areolar ventilation
f = breaths per min
vt = tidal vol
vd = dead anatomical space

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34
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

what type of epithelium is is alveolar epithelium?

what type of cells make this?

A

simple squamous epithelium

type 1 cells

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35
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

1) what cells is the alveolar epithelium patrolled by?

2) what type of cells produce surfactant?

A

1) alveolar macrophages

2) type 2 cells, produce surfactant

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36
Q

GAS EXCHANGE - henrys law

A

gas dissolves in liquid until equilibrium is reached

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37
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

5 reasons for gas exchange efficiency

A
  1. substantial difference in partial pressure across membrane
  2. short distance in gas exchange
  3. o2 + co2 = lipid soluble
  4. total SA = large
  5. blood flow + air flow are coordinated
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38
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

  • PULMONARY CIRCUIT
  • SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT
A

PULMONARY:
blood vessels to and from lungs

SYSTEMIC:
blood vessels serve rest of body

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39
Q

GAS EXCHANGE
how does altitude effect alveolar air

A

reduces partial pressures

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40
Q

GAS EXCHANGE
describe partial pressures in pulmonary artery blood

A

low po2
high pco2

conc gradient = o2 enter, co2 leave

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41
Q

GAS EXCHANGE
why is the oxygen-haemoglobin saturation curve curved not straight?

A

Hb changes shape each time o2 molecule binds

makes next o2 easier to bind

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42
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

1) haemoglobin release o2 easier in _____ temp

2) haemoglobin release o2 less easily in _______ temp

3) where are temp effects significant?

A

1) high temp

2) low temp

3) active tissue

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43
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

1) what is the BOHR EFFECT a result of?

2) what enzyme catalyses reaction of co2 with h2O?

3) what is formed from this?

A

1) pH

pH effected by co2

2) carbonic anhydrase

3) carbonic acid

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44
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

1) what BPG produced from?

2) what does BPG effect?

3) when do BPG levels rise?

4) what happens when BPG levels low?

A

1) RBC producing atp

2) o2 release

3) ph increase
hormones

4) haem not release o2

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45
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

3 transport pathways for co2

A

1) dissolve in plasma

2) bind to haem

3) converted to carbonic acid

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46
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

if po2 increases, haemoglobin ______ oxygen

If po2 decreases haemoglobin ______ oxygen

A

binds

releases

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47
Q

GAS EXCHANGE - control of respiration

what are the 2 types of neural control from the brain?

A

involuntary

voluntary

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48
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

what does involuntary respiratory control do?

A
  • regulate respiratory muscle activity
  • frequency + depth
  • respond to info from lungs + respiratory tract
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49
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

what does voluntary respiratory control do?

A

reflect activity in cerebral cortex

affect output of respiratory centres + motor neurones

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50
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

what are the 2 centres of the pons and what do they do?

A

APNEUSTIC: promote inhalation, stimulate DRG

PNEUMOTAXIC: inhibit apneustic, promote passive/active exhalation

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51
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

what are the 2 sections of the medulla oblongata?

A

DORSAL RESPIRATORY GROUP (DRG):
inspiratory centre
- quiet + forced breathing

VENTRAL RESPIRATORY GROUP (VRG):

inspiratory + expiratory centre
- only in forced breathing

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52
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

role of chemoreceptors

A

respond to pco2, po2, pH of blood or cerebral spinal fluid

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53
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

role of baroreceptors

A

change in blood pressure

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54
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

how to chemoreceptors respond to INCREASE pco2

what does pco2 increase cause

A
  • decrease pH in CSF
  • CSF chemoreceptors stimulated @ medulla
  • respiratory muscles stimulated
  • increase respiratory rate
  • restore homeostasis
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55
Q

GAS EXCHANGE

how do chemoreceptors respond to DECREASE pco2

A
  • increase pH in CSF
  • arterial chemoreceptors inhibited
  • decrease stimulation of CSF chemoreceptors
  • inhibit respiratory muscles
  • decrease respiratory rate
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56
Q

GAS EXCHANGE - respiratory changes @ birth

what happens:

1) before birth
2) at birth

A

1) pulmonary vessels collapsed . no air in lungs

2) surface tension force inflate bronchial tree + alveoli

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57
Q

GAS EXCHANGE - respiratory changes in elderly

2 things that happen

name of smoking

A
  • elastic tissue deteriorate
  • decrease flexibility, arthritic changes

EMPHYSEMA

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58
Q

CV SYSTEM

What are the 3 functions

A

PROTECTION: against infection Wbc

TRANSPORT: hormone, co2 o2 fuel

MAINTENANCE: body temp

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59
Q

CV SYSTEM

what are the 3 components of the circulatory system

A

BLOOD

BLOOD VESSELS

THE HEART

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60
Q

CV SYSTEM

describe the location of the heart
(4)

A

thoracic cavity
anterior of chest
posterior to sternum
between lungs

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61
Q

CV SYSTEM

what system does the
1) right atrium
2) left atrium
receive blood from?

A

1) systemic circuit
2) pulmonary circuit

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62
Q

CV SYSTEM

what system does the
1) left ventricle
2) right ventricle
pump blood into?

A

1) pulmonary circuit
2) systemic circuit

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63
Q

CV SYSTEM

what are the 3 layers of the heart wall (outside to inside
) ?

A

1) pericardium
2) myocardium
3) endocardium

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64
Q

CV SYSTEM

pericardium

A

fibrous tissue
stabilise heart
lubricate , pericardial fluid

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65
Q

CV SYSTEM

myocardium

A

thick muscle
Y shape, branched
large central nucleus
lots of mitochondria
myogenic, involuntary
intercalated discs

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66
Q

CV SYSTEM

intercalated discs

what are they
2 components

A

junctions between cells

GAP JUNCTIONS - depolarisation pass between cells

DESMOSOMES - bind adjacent myocytes

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67
Q

CV SYSTEM

endocardium

what does it cover
what is it made from

A

cover internal surfaces
- chambers, valves

epithelial tissue

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68
Q

CV SYSTEM

pathway of deoxygenated blood

A

vena cava
right atrium
tricuspid valve
right ventricle
pulmonary valve
pulmonary artery

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69
Q

CV SYSTEM

pathway of oxygenated blood

A

pulmonary vein
left atrium
bicuspid valve
left ventricle
aortic valve
aorta

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70
Q

CV SYSTEM

name 2 differences between the LV and RV

A

LV = thick , cylindrical
RV = thin, pouch shape

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71
Q

CV SYSTEM

what are the 2 types of cardiac muscle cells

A

CONTRACTILE : produce contraction

CARDIAC PACEMAKER CELLS : nodal / conducting

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72
Q

CV SYSTEM

electrical journey of heart
(4)

A
  1. SA NODE (pacemaker)
  2. AV NODE
  3. AV BUNDLE (bundle of his)
  4. PURKINJE FIBRES
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73
Q

CV SYSTEM

factors that change HR (4)

A
  1. autonomic nervous system
  2. catecholamines
  3. change in o2 / co2 levels
  4. change in BP
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74
Q

CV SYSTEM

what does
1) sympathetic nervous system
2) parasympathetic nervous system

do to hr

A

1) increase HR

2) slow HR

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75
Q

CV SYSTEM - catecholamines

ADRENALINE (epinephrine)

A

released by adrenal medulla

increase hr

by binding to adrenergic receptors

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76
Q

CV SYSTEM - catecholamines

NORADRENALINE ( Noraphinephrine)

A

initially increase hr , long term decrease

bind to heart adrenergic receptors

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77
Q

CV SYSTEM

Summarise the 6 stages of the cardiac cycle

A

1) ATRIAL SYSTOLE begin
blood into ventricle

2) ATRIAL SYSTOLE END, ATRIAL DIASTOLE BEGIN

3) VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE 1
pressure close AV valves

4) VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE 2
semilunar valve open , blood out

5) VENTIRCULAR DIASTOLE early
blood into atria

6) VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE late
chambers close and fill

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78
Q

CV SYSTEM

arterial system
2 components
what does this system do?

A

arteries
arterioles

blood away from heart

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79
Q

CV SYSTEM

what is the arteriovenous anastomosis

A

low resistance pathway
bypass capillary bed

used for rapid control of blood e.g: reduce body temp quickly

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80
Q

CV SYSTEM
blood flow pathway through circulation

A

heart
artery
capillary
venule
vein
heart

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81
Q

CV SYSTEM

what system is there lower pressure in

A

systemic venous

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82
Q

CV SYSTEM

what are the 3 layers in a blood vessel?

A

tunica intima
tunica media
tunica externa

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83
Q

CV SYSTEM

tunica intima (inside layer)

A
  • endothelial lining
  • connective tissue lining
  • internal elastic membrane
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84
Q

CV SYSTEM

endothelium

A

release vasoactive substance
effect vascular tone, bp, blood flow

maintain vascular homeostasis

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85
Q

CV SYSTEM

tunica media (middle)

A

concentric sheet of smooth muscle in loose connective tissue

around endothelium

bind to inner and outer layers

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86
Q

CV SYSTEM

what separates tunica media and tunica external

A

external elastic membrane (arteries)

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87
Q

CV SYSTEM

tunica externa (outer layer)

A

anchor vessel to adjacent tissue

contains:
- collagen fibres
- elastic fibres
- smooth muscle cell (in veins)

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88
Q

CV SYSTEM

what is the term for ‘vessels of vessels’

A

vaso vasorum

small arteries/veins in large arteries/veins

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89
Q

CV SYSTEM

artery wall

intima
media
externa

A

round thick wall

I: rippled , internal elastic membrane

M: thick, smooth muscle, elastic fibre
external elastic mem

E: collagen + elastic fibres

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90
Q

CV SYSTEM

vein wall

A

flattened, collapsed, thin

I: smooth, NO internal elastic mem

M: thin, smooth muscle, collagen fibres, NO external mem

E: collagen , elastic fibres

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91
Q

CV SYSTEM

what are the 3 types of artery?

A

elastic artery

muscular artery

arterioles

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92
Q

CV SYSTEM

ELASTIC ARTERY

2 examples

A

AORTA - high elastic in tunica media

CONDUCTING ARTERY - secondary pump

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93
Q

CV SYSTEM

MUSCULAR ARTERY

what does tunica media consist of

what does lower limbs have more of

A

tunica media = smooth muscle

smooth muscle, less elastin, greater vasoconstriction/dilation

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94
Q

CV SYSTEM

ARTERIOLE

A

smooth muscle

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95
Q

CV SYSTEM

CAPILLARIES

A

endothelial tube in thin basement membrane

no tunica media

no tunica externa

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96
Q

CV SYSTEM

what are the 3 types of capillary

A

continuous, fenestrated sinusoid

97
Q

CV SYSTEM

CONTINUOUS CAPILLARY

where?
structure?

A

all tissues except epithelia + cartilage

complete endothelial lining

diffuse h20, small solute, lipid sol materials

98
Q

CV SYSTEM

example of specialised continuous capillary

A

blood brain barrier in CNS

99
Q

CV SYSTEM

FENESTRATED CAPILLARY

structure?
function?
where?

A

pore in endothelial lining

rapid exchange of h20 + large solutes

chloride plexus
endocrine organs
kidneys
intestinal tract

100
Q

CV SYSTEM

SINUSOID

A

gap between adjacent endothelial cells

exchange h20 + large plasma proteins

in: liver, spleen , bone marrow, endocrine organs

101
Q

CV SYSTEM

what cells monitor blood at sinusoids?

A

phagocytic cells

102
Q

CV SYSTEM

capillary beds

aka _________ _____

A

capillary plexus

connect one arteriole + one venue

103
Q

CV SYSTEM

pre capillary sphincter

A

guard entrance to capillary

open + closes , blood in pulses

104
Q

CV SYSTEM

thoroughfare channels (capillary)

A

direct capillary connection from arteriole to venue

105
Q

CV SYSTEM

3 types of vein

A

venule (small)

medium sized vein

large vein

106
Q

CV SYSTEM

venue

A

tunica externa
endothelium

107
Q

CV SYSTEM

medium sized veins

108
Q

CV SYSTEM

large veins

109
Q

CV SYSTEM

venous valves

A

folds in tunica intima

prevent back flow

110
Q

CV SYSTEM

what structure helps veins get blood back to heart

A

skeletal muscle pump

111
Q

CV SYSTEM

VEINS

A

blood from capillaries back to heart

large diameter, thin walls, lower bp

smooth muscle = autonomic , control blood flow + pressure

112
Q

CV SYSTEM

blood flow

A

cardiac output

113
Q

CV SYSTEM

pressure

pressure gradient

A

P = generated by heart to overcome resistance

pressure gradient = difference in P from one end of vessel to other

114
Q

CV SYSTEM

flow (F) calculation

A

pressure gradient / resistance

115
Q

CV SYSTEM

circulatory pressure must overcome _______ ____________ _______

what is this effected by (3)

A

total peripheral resistance

1.vascular resistance
2. blood viscosity
3. turbulence (swirling in chambers)

116
Q

CV SYSTEM

what is vascular resistance

what is it effected by

A

friction between blood + vessel walls

vessel length / diameter

117
Q

CV SYSTEM

as vessel diameter decreases what happens to R?

118
Q

CV SYSTEM

1) hypertension

2) hypotension

A

1) abnormally HIGH BP

2) abnormally LOW bp

119
Q

CV SYSTEM

cardiovascular response to exercise (4)

A

increase HR

Increase Q

increase systolic BP

redistribution of blood flow

120
Q

CV SYSTEM - regulate HR

1) parasympathetic nervous system …

2) sympathetic nervous system…

A

1) slow HR, vagus nerve, inhibit SA/AV node

2) increase HR, stimulate SA/AV node, cardiac accelerator nerves

121
Q

CV SYSTEM

why does HR initially increase at start of exercise

later increase because …

A

parasympathetic withdrawal

increased SNS stimulation

122
Q

CV SYSTEM

2 ways stroke volume changes

A

1) increase sympathetic nervous system
- circulate adrenaline/noradrenaline

2) increased end diastolic vol, increase stretch of sarcomeres, increase force of contraction

123
Q

CV SYSTEM

what is : EDV
The Frank Starling Mechanism

A

“force of contraction is proportional to fibre length”

124
Q

CV SYSTEM

cardiac output increases due to:

A
  • increase hr
  • increase sv
125
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

6 functions

A

ingestion
mechanical processing
digestion
secretion
absorption
excretion

126
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

subdivisions of digestive tract (6)

A

1) oral cavity, teeth, tongue
2) pharynx
3) oesophagus
4) stomach
5) small intestine
6) large intestine

127
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

accessory organs of digestive system (4)

A

1) salivary glands
2) liver
3) gallbladder
4) pancreas

128
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

what is the peritoneum

A

serous membrane of abdominal cavity

129
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

2 components of peritoneum

A

SEROUS MEMBRANE
visceral layer = organs
parietal layer = cavities

PERITONEAL FLUID
lube for sliding

130
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

mesenteries

A

fold in membrane, attach intestine to stomach lining

expansion/contraction

suspend digestive tract

pass of blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic vessels

131
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

what does digestive tract protect against (3)

A

mechanical stresses
bacteria
digestive acids + enzymes

132
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

4 layers of digestive tract

A

mucosa
submucosa
muscular externa
serosa

133
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

digestive tract mucosa

inside

(3)

A

MUCOSA EPITHELIUM
strat. squam. epithet. in: oral cav, pharynx, oesophagus.

LAMINA PROPRIA
areolar tissue

MUSCULARIS MUCOSAE
inner circle layer/ outer longitudinal layer

134
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

digestive tract submucosa

A
  • dense irregular connective tissue
  • large blood vessels , lymphatic vessels
  • exocrine glands , buffer and enzymes in tract
135
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

what is the submucosal plexus

A

neural network between mucosa + submucosa

136
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

digestive tract muscular externa

movements coordinated by _____

A

smooth muscle cells

ENS enteric nervous system ,
innervated by parasympathetic div of ANS

137
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

digestive tract serosa

replaced by? where?

(outside)

A

serous membrane

replaced by adventitia (dense collagen fibre sheet) :
oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, rectum

138
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

what cells control movement of food

A

pacesetter cells

139
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

3 stages of moving food

A
  1. contract circular muscle behind bolus
  2. contract longitudinal muscle ahead of bolus
  3. contract circular muscle layer . force bolus forward
140
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

oral cavity functions
(6)

A
  1. sensory analysis
  2. mechanical processing
  3. lubrication
  4. limited digestion
  5. passage for food liquid air
  6. open to oropharynx
141
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

saliva functions (3)

A

lube mouth + food
dissolve chemicals
initiate digestion of complex carbs

142
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

salivary glands (3)

controlled by (2)

A

parotid
sublingual
submandibular

sympathetic, parasympathetic stimulation

143
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

4 phases of swallowing

A
  1. buccal phase
  2. pharyngeal phase
  3. oesophageal phase
  4. bolus enter stomach
144
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

oesophagus

layers (4)

A

move food/liquid to stomach

mucosa (inner)
submucosa
muscular externa
adventitia (outer)

145
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

stomach functions (4)

A

store ingested food

mechanical breakdown

chemical breakdown:
- by enzymes (pepsin = break protein)
- by acid (HCL reduce ph)

produce intrinsic factor (absorb b12)

146
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

stomach lining layer (5)

A

simple columnar epithelium (produce mucous)

gastric pits – gastric glands (cells divide at bottom to replace damaged cells by e.g: acids )

submucosa

muscularis externa

serosa

147
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

3 components of muscular externa in stomach lining

A

oblique muscle
circular muscle
longitudinal muscle

148
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

where would you find gastric glands?

A

fundus and body of stomach

149
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

3 types of cells in gastric glands

A

PARIETAL CELLS
secrete intrinsic factor + HCL

CHIEF CELLS
secrete pepsinogen
covert to pepsin by HCL

G CELLS
secrete gastrin

150
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

where would you find PYLORIC GLANDS

A

pylorus, where stomach narrows

151
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

pyloric glands

what do they do?
what cells here?

A

produce mucous

G CELLS = secrete gastrin

D cells = release somatostatin (inhibit gastrin)

152
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

how do parietal cells secrete HCL

A

1)enzyme: carbonic anhydrase convert CO2 + H20 — carbonic acid
dissociate – = H- ions

2) countertransport mechanism:
eject bicarbonate atoms
import chloride ions

3) chloride ions diffuse across cell
exit: chloride channels into gastric gland lumen

4) H ions actively transported — gastric gland lumen

153
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

mechanism help protect stomach from acid/protease (6)

A

mucous lining

rapid cell div

seperate secretion of H+, Cl- in parietal cell

secrete inactive precursor (pepsinogen)

stimulate secretion only when needed

inhibition of secretion

154
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

3 inhibitors of secretion

A

CCK
GIP
secretin

155
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

small intestine regions (3)

A

duodenum
jejunum
ileum

156
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

duodenum

A

proximal
receive pancreas + liver secretion
start digestion
small villi
25 cm

157
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

jejunum

A

large sa
chemical digestion
2.5m long

158
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

ileum

A

immune functions
3.5m long

159
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

villi

A

large sa
capillaries + lymphatic capillaries
Brush border of microvilli

160
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

what is the scientific name for lymphatic capillary?

what do they do

A

lacteal

absorb fats

161
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

what happens to cells in the intestinal gland?

A

divide at bottom, displaced at top of villi
disintegrate when add enzyme to lumen

162
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

brush border enzymes role

A

break materials in contact with brush border

enteropeptidase = activate trypsinogen (pancreatic proenzyme)

163
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

enteroendocrine cells

role

2 hormones examples

A

produce hormone

CCK + secretin: increase enzyme/bile secretion

GIP gastric inhibitory peptide: inhibit gastrin activity, slows stomach

164
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

duodenal glands role

A

produce mucus

increase pH

165
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

intestinal juice

A

moisten chyme
buffer acids

166
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

what does pancreatic juice include

what breaks down:
1) cho
2) lipids/fats
3) nucleic acids
4) proteases/ peptidase

A

pancreatic enzymes:

1) alpha amylase
2) lipase
3) nucleases
4) old protein/peptide molecules

167
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - pancreas

endocrine cells secrete =

exocrine cells secrete =

A

ENDOCRINE = insulin + glucagon into blood

EXOCRINE = pancreatic juice

168
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

______ is one of the largest organs of the body, adjacent to stomach

169
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

where does the liver get
1/3 of its blood
2/3 of its blood

A

1/3 = hepatic artery proper

2/3 = hepatic portal vein (came from many locations to here)

170
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - liver

what is a corner of a lobule called?

what do they contain?

A

portal area

branch of:
hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery proper, bile duct

171
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

name of liver cells

A

hepatocytes

172
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

what happens in lobules?

A

blood past hepatocytes = absorb solute, secrete protein — sinusoids

bile — bile ducts

173
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

liver metabolic functions (5)

A

metabolise cho, lipid, aa

remove waste

vitamin storage

mineral storage

drug inactivation

174
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

liver haematological regulation (3)

A

phagocytosis , antigen present

plasma proteins synthesis

remove hormone, antibodies, toxins

175
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

3 liver functions

A

metabolic regulation

haematological regulation

bile production

176
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

gallbladder bile transport pathway (5)

A

1) Liver secrete bile

2) Stored, concentrated in gallblader

3) Duodenal release CCK = hepatopancreatic sphincter relax , gallbladder contract

4) Bile ejected into duodenum

5) Bile salts break lipid droplets (emulsifcation)

177
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

where are cells that secrete digestive enzymes located?

A

pancreatic acini

178
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

function of large intestine (4)

A

ABSORPTION (water +. bile salts)

BACTERIAL VITAMIN PRODUCTION

COMPACT CONTENTS – FAECES

STORE FAECES – DEFAECATION

179
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

large intestine structure

A

no villi = smooth surface

mucous cells

muscular externa + thin strips of taeniae coli

180
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - neural control of intestine

1) LOCAL REFLEXES

2) CENTRAL CONTROL (2)

A

1) local response, stretch, ph change

2) PARASYMPATHETIC: increase motility/secretion

SYMPATHETIC: inhibit

181
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - neural control of intestine

name of reflex that:

1) stimulate motility + secretion along small intestine

2) open valve between small + large intestine

A

1) gastroenteric reflex

2) gastroileal reflex

182
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

GASTRIN

1) stimulated by:
2) stimulates … :

A

1) food in stomach

2) increase acid production
stimulate Smooth muscle contract

183
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

GIP
1) stimulated by:
2) stimulates… :

A

1) chyme in duodenum = stretch

2) inhibit gastrin
stimulate insulin from pancreas

184
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

SECRETIN + CCK
1) stimulated by:
2) stimulates… :

A

1) chyme in duodenum
2) - release pancreatic enzyme + buffers
- bile secretion

185
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

VIP
1) stimulated by:
2) stimulates… :

A

1) chyme in duodenum
2) dilate intestine capillary = blood flow up to absorb food

186
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

name the 5 hormones produced by digestive system to increase food absorption

A

GASTRIN
GIP
CCK
SECRETIN
VIP

187
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

summarise how CARBOHYDRATES are broken down

A

1) salivary amylase, oral cavity

2) stomach: – disaccharide, trisaccharides

3) small intestine: pancreatic alpha amylase

4) enzymes in brush border– simple sugar

5) capillaries, through liver, bloodstream

188
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

summarise how LIPIDS are broken down

A

1) lingual lipase ,tongue

2) bile salt + pancreatic lipase (small intestine) —- FA

3) FA diffuse in small intestine cells

4) packaged into chylomicrons —- lacteals

189
Q

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

summarise how PROTEINS are broken down

A

1) pepsin , stomach

2) pancreatic proteases , proteins – AA

3) brush border enzymes — single AA (absorb into capillaries)

4) filtered in liver

190
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

4 components of lymphatic system

A

lymphatic vessels

lymphoid tissues

lymph (fluid)

lymphatic cells

191
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

what do lymphoid cells respond to (3)

A

environmental pathogens

toxins

abnormal body cells e.g: cancer

192
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

function of lymphatic system (3)

A

1) produce maintain spread lymphocytes

2) return fluid from peripheral tissue – blood

3) distribute hormones nutrient waste from tissue to start of circulation

193
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

primary lymphatic organs (2)

A

thymus
red bone marrow

194
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

secondary lymphatic organs/tissues

A

spleen
lymph nodes
lymphoid nodules

195
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

lymphatic vessel

structure + function

A

between cells
capillaries join to form vessels

start as blind pockets
large diameter
thin walls
valves

196
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

what 5 trunks form a lymph trunk

A

lumbar
intestinal
bronchomediastinal
subclavian
jugular

197
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

2 types of lymphatic duct

A

right lymphatic duct (on top right hand side)

thoracic duct (anywhere else)

198
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

3 type of lymphocytes

A

T CELL (thymus dependent)

B CELL (bone marrow)

NK CELL (natural killer, bone marrow )

199
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

how are T cells produced

A

lymphoid stem cells in THYMUS
–
T cells

200
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

how are B cells/ NK cells produced

A

lymphoid stem cells
–
B cells / NK cells

201
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

role of:
B cells
T cells
NK cells

A

B = antibody mediated immunity

T = cell mediated immunity

NK = immunological surveillance

202
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

what happens at
EFFERENT + AFFERENT lymphatic vessel

A

E = clean lymph out

A = lymph fluid in

203
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

what cells would you find in lymph node medulla (2)

where?

A

b cell
plasma cell

middle of node

204
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

what cells would you find in lymph node inner cortex (1)

where?

A

t cell

above medulla

205
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

what cells would you find around germinal centre of outer cortex (1)

where?

A

b cells

edge of the circles

206
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

what cells would you find in germinal centre outer cortex (2)

where?

A

b cell

in circles

207
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

difference between lymphoid nodule + lymphoid organs

A

organs = have outer tissue

nodules = bundle of tissue with no capsule

208
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

formation of lymph journey (8)

A
  • INTERSTITUAL FLUID
  • LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES
    afferent vessel
  • LYMPH NODES
    efferent vessel
  • LYMPHATIC VESSEL
  • LYMPHATIC DUCT
  • SUBCLAVIAN VEINS
209
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

order which lymph travels through node (5)

A

sub capsular sinus

outer cortex

deep cortex

medulla core

hilum / efferent lymphatics

210
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

what is the role of a lymph node?

A

purified lymph before return to venous circulation

211
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

difference between
INNATE
ADAPTIVE
immune response

A

INNATE: non specific
ADAPTIVE: specific

212
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

non specific immunity

A

from birth
no memory
block/attack pathogen

213
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

specific immunity

A

identify, attack, develop immunity to antigen

response to antigen

214
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

7 types of non specific defence

A
  1. physical barriers
  2. phagocytic cells
  3. NK cells
  4. Interferons (antiviral)
  5. complement system
  6. inflammation
  7. fever
215
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

5 ‘categories’/locations of physical barriers

A

eyes
respiratory tract
skin
digestive tract
genitourinary tract

216
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

summarise phagocytosis and how antigen presentation occurs

A

1) APC/phagocyte engulfs pathogen
2) lysosome fuse to pathogen.
3) acidic + lysozyme breaks down pathogen cell wall
4) endoplasmic rect. produce MHC class II – bind to lysosome
5) move antigen parts to surface + present antigen = APC

217
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

2 types of phagocytes

A

MACROPHAGE

MICROPHAGE

218
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

macrophage

A

eosinophils + neutrophils

leave blood stream to fight infection

219
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

microphage

A

fixed or free

make moncyte-macrophage system

large, derived from monocytes

220
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

3 ways macrophage respond to pathogen

A

engulf
bind
destroy

221
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

how do NK cells defend (4)

A

1) recognise pathogen and bind
2) Golgi apparatus line up
3) release perforin
4) perforin forms pore on pathogen and release enzyme to break target cell

222
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

how do interferons defend

what type of response to they have?

A

non specific

cytokines released by activated lymphocytes/macrophages

223
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

3 types of interferons

A

1) alpha-interferons
stimulate NK cells

2) beta-interferons
slow inflammation

3) gamma interferons
stimulate macrophage

224
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

summarise the complement system

A

2 pathways:
classical (fast)
alternative (slow)

chain reaction which converts inactive protein to active protein

form pore on bacteria cell wall to destroy

225
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

4 effects of complement activation

A

attract phagocytes

enhance phagocytosis

stimulate inflammation

destroy target cell membrane

226
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

how does inflammation cause tissue repair (6)

A

1) increase blood flow
2) phagocytes move to site
3) remove debris
4) clot
5)activate fibrinogen
6) tissue repair

227
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

2 types of specific immunity

A

CELL MEDIATED - against intracellular pathogen

HUMORAL - against extracellular pathogen

228
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

summarise the humoral response

A

1) red bone marrow – mature b cell

2) b cell – plasma cell + memory cell

3) b cell = produce antibodies

4) antibodies bind to antigen and inactivate

229
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

summarise the cell mediated response

A

1) thymus – T cells

2) T cells – killer T cells (CD8 protein)
or
helper T cells (CD4)

3)helper cells activated

4) these activate killer T cells — cytotoxic T cells

5) activated cytotoxic T cells invade antigens

230
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

what 3 cells make memory cells

A

b cells
cytotoxic T cells
helper T cells

231
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

specific immunity is driven by ________, ________, ___________

A

memory
tolerance
specificity

232
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

2 types of MHC proteins and where they are presented

A

CLASS 1: nucleated cells

CLASS 2: APCs, lymphocytes

233
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

summarise antigen presentation (5)

A

1) APC/phagocyte engulfs pathogen
2) lysosome fuse to pathogen.
3) acidic + lysozyme breaks down pathogen cell wall
4) endoplasmic rect. produce MHC class II – bind to lysosome
5) move antigen parts to surface + present antigen = APC

234
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

summarise antigen expression

A

1) e.g: virus infects
2) unusual peptides chopped up and presented on cell surface
3) by MHC class I

235
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

3 types of T cells and their roles

A

1) CYTOTOXIC :
cell mediated immunity, destroy virally infected cells

2) HELPER:
stimulate t/b cell function

3) SURPRESSOR (regulatory):
inhibit t/b cell function

236
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

CD_ T cells recognised on MHC class I

CD_ T cells recognised on MHC class II

A

8
4 (as divide 4/2 = 2)

237
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

5 types of antibodies

A

IgG (80% of antibodies, from mum)
IgA (glandular secretions)
IgM
IgD
IgE

238
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

4 problems with the Immune system

A

1) allergy

2) autoimmune disease: attacks own tissue

3) transplant rejection

4) disease of immune system (primary/secondary)

SEM 2 (20 decks)

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