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Anatomy and Physiology > A&P Chapter 6: > Flashcards

A&P Chapter 6: Flashcards

1
Q

contains no blood vessels or nerves, composed primarily of water, surrounded by the perichondrium that resists outward expansion and contains the blood vessels

A

skeletal cartilage

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2
Q

layer of dense connective tissue surrounding cartilage like a girdle

A

perichondrium

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3
Q

made up of chondrocytes, cells encased in small cavities (lacunae) within jelly-like extracellular matrix

A

cartilage

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4
Q

three types of cartilage

A

hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage

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5
Q

provides support, flexibility, and resilience, most abundant skeletal cartilage

A

hyaline cartilage

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6
Q

covers the ends of long bones

A

articular (hyaline)

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7
Q

connects the ribs to the sternum

A

costal (hyaline)

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8
Q

makes up larynx, reinforces air passages

A

respiratory (hyaline)

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9
Q

supports the nose

A

nasal (hyaline)

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10
Q

similar to hyaline cartilage, found in the external ear and the epiglottis

A

elastic cartilage

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11
Q

highly compressible yet with great tensile strength, contains thick collagen fibers (many fibers nearly in parallel to form fibrils), found in menisci of the knee, pubic symphysis, and intervertebral discs

A

fibrocartilage

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12
Q

cartilage grows in two ways

A

1.) appositional growth
2.) interstitial growth

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13
Q

cartilage-forming cells in perichondrium secrete matrix against external face of existing cartilage; new matrix laid down on surface of cartilage

A

appostitional growth

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14
Q

chondrocytes within lacunae divide and secrete new matrix, expandingcartilage from within; new matrix made with cartilage

A

interstitial growth

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15
Q

occurs during normal bone growth in youth, but can also occur in old age; hardened cartilage os not the same as bone

A

calcification of cartilage

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16
Q

there are seven important functions of bones

A

1.) support
2.) protection
3.) movement
4.) mineral and growth factor storage
5.) blood cell formation
6.) triglyceride (fat) storage
7.) hormone prodection

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17
Q

for body and soft organs

A

support

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18
Q

protect brain, spinal cord, and vital organs

A

protection

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19
Q

levers for muscle action

A

movement

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20
Q

calcium and phosphorus, and growth factors reservoir

A

mineral and growth factor storage

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21
Q

hematopoiesis occurs in red marrow cavities of certain bones

A

blood cell formation

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22
Q

used for an energy source, is stored in bone cavities

A

triglyceride (fat) storage

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23
Q

osteocalcin secreted by bones helps to regulate insulin secretion, glucose levels, and metabolism

A

hormone production

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24
Q

classification of bones

A

206 named bones in the human skeleton

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25
Q

two groups that divide based on the location

A

1.) axial skeleton
2.) appendicular skeleton

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26
Q

bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage

A

axial skeleton

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27
Q

bones of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder, and hip

A

appendicular skeleton

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28
Q

four shapes of bones

A

1.) long bone
2.) short bone
3.) flat bone
4.) irregular bone

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29
Q

longer than they are wide (humerus)

A

long bones

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30
Q

cube-shaped bones of the wrist and ankle

A

short bones

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31
Q

thin, flattened, and a bit curved (sternum, ribs, scapulae, and most skull bones)

A

flat bones

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32
Q

more complex shapes (vertebrae, facial and pelvic bones)

A

irregular bone

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33
Q

small round bones formed in tendons (Patella) also considered short bones

A

sesamoid bones

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34
Q

three levels of structure

A

1.) gross
2.) microscopic
3.) chemical

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35
Q

dense outer layer on every bone that appears smooth and solid

A

compact bone (gross anatomy)

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36
Q

honeycomb of trabeculae; fills the epiphyses and is filled with red bone marrow

A

spongy bone (gross anatomy)

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37
Q

covers outside of compact bone

A

periosteum (gross anatomy)

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38
Q

covers inside portion of compact bone; for one growth, repair and remodeling, contains osteoblasts and osteoclast

A

endosteum (gross anatomy)

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39
Q

a shaft (diaphysis), bone ends (epiphyses), and membranes

A

structure of a long bone

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40
Q

ubular shaft between proximal and distal ends of long bones

A

diaphysis

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41
Q

wider section at each end of the bone

A

epiphysis

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42
Q

Between diaphysis and epiphysis is where bone growth occurs

A

epiphyseal plate

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43
Q

two types (periosteum and endosteum)

A

membranes

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44
Q

covers the outer surface of the bone; white, double-layered membrane that covers external surfaces except joints

A

periosteum

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45
Q

outer layer consisting of dense irregular connective tissue consisting of Sharpey’s fibers that secure to bone matrix

A

fibrous layer

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46
Q

inner layer abutting bone and contains primitive osteogenic stem cells that gives rise to most all bone cells

A

osteogenic laye

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47
Q

membrane lining the medullary cavity and spongy bone; for one growth, repair and remodeling, contains osteoblasts and osteoclast

A

endosteum

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48
Q

found within trabecular cavities of spongy bone and diploë of flat bones, such as sternum

A

red marrow

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49
Q

sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendons, Joint surfaces, Foramen (hole) conduits for blood vessels and nerves

A

bone markings

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50
Q

three types of bone markings

A

projection, depression, and opening

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51
Q

outward bulge of bone; may be due to increased stress from muscle pull or is a modification for joints

A

projection

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52
Q

bowl- or groove-like cut-out that can serve as passageways for vessels and nerves, or plays a role in joints

A

depression

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53
Q

hole or canal in bone that serves as passageways for blood vessels and nerves

A

openings

54
Q

five major cells types

A

1.) osteogenic cells
2.) osteoblast
3.) osteocytes
4.) bone-lining cells
5.) osteoclasts

55
Q

mitotically active stem cells in periosteum and endosteum; also called osteoprogenitor cells

A

osteogenic cells

56
Q

bone-forming cells that secrete unmineralized bone matrix called osteoid; are actively mitotic

A

osteoblast

57
Q

mature bone cells in lacunae that no longer divide; maintain bone matrix and act as stress or strain sensors

A

osteocytes

58
Q

flat cells on bone surfaces believed to also help maintain matrix (along with osteocytes)

A

bone-lining cells

59
Q

on external bone surface, lining cells

A

periosteal cells (bone-lining cells)

60
Q

on internal surfaces

A

endosteal cells (bone-lining cells)

61
Q

derived from same hematopoietic stem cells that become macrophages; giant, multinucleate cells function in bone resorption (breakdown of bone)

A

osteoclasts

62
Q

also called lamellar bone

A

compact bone

63
Q

compact bone consists of

A
  • Osteon (Haversian system)
    ▪ Canals and canaliculi
    ▪ Interstitial and circumferential lamellae
64
Q

the structural unit of compact bone

A

osteon (haversian system)

65
Q

an osteon cylinder consists of several rings of bone matrix

A

lamellae

66
Q

central channel containing blood vessels and nerves

A

Haversian canal (central canal)

67
Q

channels lying at right angles to the central canal, bringing blood and nerve supply from the periosteum in to said central canal

A

Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals

68
Q

small cavities that contain osteocytes

A

lacunae

69
Q

hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and to central canal

A

canaliculi

70
Q

some fill gaps between forming osteons; others are remnants of osteons cut by bone remodeling; not part of osteon

A

Interstitial lamellae

71
Q

just deep to periosteum, but superficial to endosteum, these layers of lamellae extend around entire surface of diaphysis; help long bone to resist twisting

A

Circumferential lamellae

72
Q

appears poorly organized but is actually organized along lines of stress to help bone resist any stress

A

spongy bone

73
Q

Organic components

A

osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, bone-lining cells,
osteoclasts, and osteoid

74
Q

makes up one-third of organic bone matrix, is secreted by
osteoblasts

A

osteoid

75
Q

Inorganic components

A

Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)

76
Q

makeup 65% of bone by mass, consist mainly of tiny calcium phosphate crystals in and around collagen fibers, responsible for hardness and resistance to compression

A

Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)

77
Q

the process of bone tissue formation; bone remodeling and repair are lifelong

A

Ossification (osteogenesis)

78
Q

up to about week 8, fibrous membranes and hyaline cartilage of fetal skeleton are
replaced with bone tissue

A

formation of the body skeleton

79
Q

bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage, bones are called cartilage (endochondral) bones, form most of skeleton

A

endochondral ossification

80
Q

bone develops from fibrous membrane, bones are called membrane bones

A

intramembranous ossification

81
Q

5 Stages of Endochondral Ossification

A
  1. Formation of bone collar
  2. Cavitation of the hyaline cartilage
  3. Invasion of internal cavities by the periosteal bud, and spongy bone formation
  4. Formation of the medullary cavity; appearance of secondary ossification centers in the epiphyses
  5. Ossification of the epiphyses, with hyaline cartilage remaining only in the epiphyseal plates
82
Q

Four major steps are involved

A
  1. Ossification centers are formed when mesenchymal cells cluster and become osteoblasts
  2. Osteoid is secreted, then calcified
  3. Woven bone is formed when osteoid is laid down around blood vessels, resulting in trabeculae
  4. Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, and red marrow appears
83
Q

increase in length, cartilage continually grows and is replaced by bone

A

Interstitial Growth

84
Q

increased thickness and remodeling of all bones by osteoblasts and osteoclasts on bone surfaces, specifically the periosteum and endosteum

A

Appositional Growth

85
Q

Epiphyseal plate consists of five zones

A
  1. Resting (quiescent) zone
  2. Proliferation (growth) zone
  3. Hypertrophic zone
  4. Calcification zone
  5. Ossification (osteogenic) zone
86
Q

area of cartilage on epiphyseal side of epiphyseal plate that is relatively inactive

A

resting (quiescent) zone

87
Q

area of cartilage on diaphysis side of epiphyseal plate that is rapidly dividing; new cells formed move upward, pushing epiphysis away from diaphysis, causing lengthening

A

proliferation (growth) zone

88
Q

area with older chondrocytes closer to diaphysis; cartilage lacunae enlarge and erode, forming interconnecting spaces

A

hypertrophic zone

89
Q

surrounding cartilage matrix calcifies; chondrocytes die and deteriorate

A

calcification zone

90
Q

chondrocyte deterioration leaves long spicules of calcified cartilage at
epiphysis-diaphysis junction; Ultimately replaced with spongy bone

A

ossification zone

91
Q

closure occurs when epiphysis and diaphysis fuse

A

epiphyseal plate

92
Q

growing bones widen as they lengthen through

A

appositional growth

93
Q

beneath periosteum secrete bone matrix on external bone

A

osteoblasts

94
Q

remove bone on endosteal surface

A

osteoclasts

95
Q

most important hormone in stimulating epiphyseal plate activity
in infancy and childhood

A

growth hormone

96
Q

modulates activity of growth hormone, ensuring proper
proportions

A

thyroid hormone

97
Q

consists of both bone deposit and bone resorption

A

bone remodeling

98
Q

packets of adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts coordinate
remodeling process

A

remodeling units

99
Q

function of osteoclasts

A

resorption

100
Q

accomplished by osteoclasts

A

bone resorption

101
Q

accomplished by osteoclast

A

bone deposition

102
Q

Negative feedback loop that controls blood 𝐶𝑎2+ levels

A

hormonal controls (control of remodeling)

103
Q

produced by parathyroid glands in response to low blood calcium levels

A

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

104
Q

produced by parafollicular cells of thyroid gland in response to high
levels of blood calcium levels

A

calcitonin

105
Q

low levels of calcium cause hyperexcitablility

A

hypocalcemia

106
Q

high levels of calcium cause nonresponsiveness

A

hypercalcemia

107
Q

a bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it

A

Wolff’s law (Response to mechanical stress)

108
Q

Observations supporting Wolff’s law

A
  • Handedness (right or left handed) results in bone of one upper limb being thicker and stronged
  • Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle
  • Trabeculae form along lines of stress
  • Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attac
109
Q

causes remodeling by producing electrical signals when bone
is deformed

A

mechanical stress

110
Q

are breaks

A

fractures

111
Q

Position of bone ends after fracture

A
  • Nondisplaced: ends retain normal position
    ▪ Displaced: ends are out of normal alignment
112
Q

Completeness of break

A
  • Complete: broken all the way through
    ▪ Incomplete: not broken all the way through
113
Q

Whether skin is penetrated

A
  • Open (compound): skin is penetrated
    ▪ Closed (simple): skin is not penetrated
114
Q

cast or traction is needed for healing

A

Immobilization

115
Q

Repair involves four major stages

A
  1. Hematoma formation
  2. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation
  3. Bony callus formation
  4. Bone remodeling
116
Q

torn blood vessels hemorrhage, forming mass of clotted blood; site is swollen, painful, and inflamed

A

hematoma formation

117
Q

capillaries grow into hematoma, phagocytic cells clear debris

A

fibrocartilaginous callus formation

118
Q

within one week, new trabeculae appear in fibrocartilaginous callus

A

bony callus formation

119
Q

begins during bony callus formation and continues for several months; excess material on diaphysis exterior and within medullary cavity is removed

A

bone remodeling

120
Q

Three major bone diseases

A
  • Osteomalacia and rickets
    – Osteoporosis
    – Paget’s disease
121
Q

bones are poorly mineralized, results in soft, weak bones, pain upon bearing weight

A

osteomalacia

122
Q

results in bowed legs and other bone deformities because bones ends are enlarged and abnormally long

A

rickets

123
Q

a group of diseases in which bone resorption exceeds deposit

A

osteoporosis

124
Q

Risk factors for osteoporosis

A
  • most often aged, postmenopausal women (affects 30% of women aged 60–70 years and 70% by age 80)
  • men are less prone due to protection by the effects of testosterone
125
Q

Treating osteoporosis

A
  • Calcium
    ▪ Vitamin D supplements
    ▪ Weight-bearing exercise
    ▪ Hormone replacement therapy
126
Q

decrease osteoclast activity and number, partially reverse osteoporosis in spine

A

bisphosphonates

127
Q

monoclonal antibody shown to reduce fractures in men with prostate cancer; improves bone density in elderly

A

denosumab

128
Q

Preventing osteoporosis

A
  • Plenty of calcium in diet in early adulthood
    – Reduce consumption of carbonated beverages and alcohol
    – Plenty of weight-bearing exercise
129
Q

excessive and haphazard bone deposit and resorption cause bone to grow fast and develop poorly

A

Paget’s Disease

130
Q
  • Embryonic skeleton ossifies predictably, so fetal age is easily determined from X rays or sonograms
  • Most long bones begin ossifying by 8 weeks, with primary ossification centers developed by week 12
A

Developmental Aspects of Bone

131
Q

Birth to Young Adulthood

A
  • At birth, most long bones ossified, except at epiphyses
  • Epiphyseal plates persist through childhood and adolescence
  • At ~ age 25, all bones are completely ossified, and skeletal growth ceases

Anatomy and Physiology (17 decks)

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