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A&P 1 Summer 2023 > A&P Chapter 6 > Flashcards

A&P Chapter 6 Flashcards

1
Q

What does the human skeleton initially consist of?

A

Cartilage, which later is replaced by bone

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2
Q

What is skeletal cartilage made of?

A

Highly resilient, molded cartilage tissue that consists primarily of water. Contains no blood vessels or nerves

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3
Q

What is the perichondrium?

A

Layer of dense connective tissue surrounding cartilage

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4
Q

What does the perichondrum do?

A

Helps cartilage resist outward expansion, contains blood vessels for nutrient delivery to cartilage

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5
Q

What is cartilage made of?

A

Chondrocytes, cells encased in small cavities (lacunae) within jelly-like extracellular matrix

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6
Q

What are the three types of cartilage?

A

Hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage

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7
Q

What does hyaline cartilage provide?

A

Support, flexibility and resilience

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8
Q

Where is hyaline cartilage located?

A

Joints, ribs, respiratory, and nasal cartilage

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9
Q

What is elastic cartilage?

A

Similar to hyaline cartilage, but contains elastic fibers

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10
Q

Where is elastic cartilage located?

A

External ear and epiglottis

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11
Q

What is fibrocartilage made of?

A

Thick collagen fibers that has great tensile strength

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12
Q

Where is fibrocartilage located?

A

Menisci of knee, vertebral discs

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13
Q

What two ways does cartilage grow?

A

Appositional growth, and interstitial growth

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14
Q

What is appositional growth?

A

Thickness, cartilage-forming cells in perichondrium secrete matrix against external face of existing cartilage. A new matrix is laid down on surface on cartilage

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15
Q

What is interstitial growth?

A

Length, chondrocytes within lacunae divide and secrete a new matrix, expanding cartilage from within. A new matrix is made within cartilage.

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16
Q

What are the functions of bones?

A
  1. Support = For body and soft organs
  2. Protection = Protects brain, spinal cord, and vital organs
  3. Movement =Levers for muscle actions
  4. Mineral and growth factor storage = Calcium, phosphorous, and growth factors reservoir
  5. Blood cell formation = Hematopoiesis occurs in red marrow cavities of certain bones
  6. Triglyceride storage = Fat, used for an energy source, is stored in bone cavities
  7. Hormone production = Osteocalcin, which is secreted by bones helps to regulate insulin secretion, glucose levels, and metabolism
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17
Q

How many bones are in the human skeleton?

A

206

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18
Q

What are the two groups of bones that are based on location?

A

Axial skeleton, and appendicular skeleton

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19
Q

What is the axial skeleton?

A

Long axis of the body, contains the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage

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20
Q

What is the appendicular skeleton?

A

Limbs, shoulder, and hip

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21
Q

What are the classifications of bones by shape, and what is an example of each?

A
  1. Long bone (humerus)
  2. Flat bone (sternum)
  3. Irregular bone (vertebrae)
  4. Short bone (talus)
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22
Q

Is a bone an organ? Why or why not?

A

Yes, because they contain different types of tissues

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23
Q

What tissues do bones have?

A

Bone (osseous) tissue predominates, but a bone also has nervous tissue, cartilage, fibrous, connective tissue, muscle cells, and epithelial cells in its blood vessels

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24
Q

What are the three levels of bone structure?

A

Gross, microscopic, and chemical

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25
Q

What is compact bone?

A

Dense outer layer on every bone that appears smooth and solid

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26
Q

What is spongy bone made of?

A

Made up of a honeycomb of small, needle-like or flat pieces of bone called trabeculae. Open spaces are filled with red or yellow bone marrow

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27
Q

What does short, irregular, and flat bones consit of?

A

Thin plates of spongy bone (diploe) covered by compact bone

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28
Q

Where is compact bone in short, irregular, and flat bones?

A

Sandwiched between connective tissue and membranes

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29
Q

What is the periosteum and endosteum?

A

The periosteum covers the outside of compact bone and the endosteum covers the inside portion of compact bone

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30
Q

Where is bone marrow in short, irregular, and flat bones?

A

Scattered throughout spongy bone, no defined marrow cavity

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31
Q

What does hyaline cartilage cover in short, irregular, and flat bones?

A

The area of bone that is part of a movable joint

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32
Q

What is the diaphysis of long bones?

A

Elongated, usually cylindrical shaft, provides leverage and weight support, compact bone with spongy bone extending inward

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33
Q

What is the medullary cavity in a long bone?

A

Hollow, cylindrical space within the diaphysis, contains red bone marrow in children, and contains yellow bone marrow in adults

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34
Q

What is the epiphysis in long bones?

A

Knobby region at the end of each bone, composed of outer thin layer of compact bone, and the inner region of spongy bone

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35
Q

What is the proximal epiphysis?

A

End of the bone closest to body trunk

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36
Q

What is the distal epiphysis?

A

End furthest from trunk

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37
Q

What is the articular cartilage?

A

Covers the joint surface, thin layer of hyaline cartilage, reduces friction, absorbs shock in moveable joints

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38
Q

What is the epiphyseal plate?

A

In metaphysis, also known as growth plate, has a thin layer of hyaline cartilage, provides for lengthwise bone growth

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39
Q

What is the epiphyseal line in adults?

A

The remnant of the epiphyseal plate

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40
Q

What is the periosteum?

A

White, double layered membrane that covers external surfaces except joints. It’s the anchoring points for tendons and ligaments

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41
Q

What does the periosteum contain?

A

Many nerve fibers and blood vessels that continue into the shaft through nutrient foramen openings

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42
Q

What is the endosteum?

A

Delicate connective tissue membrane covering the internal bone surface. Covers trabeculae of spongy bone. Lines canals that pass through compact bone

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43
Q

Where is red marrow found?

A

Within trabecular cavities of spongy bone and diploe of flat bones, such as the sternum

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44
Q

What is the difference of medullary cavities in newborns and adults?

A

In newborns, medullary cavities and all spongy bones contain red marrow, but in adults, the medullary cavities contain yellow marrow

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45
Q

Where is red marrow located in adults?

A

Head of the femur and humerus

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46
Q

Where is the most active areas of hematopoiesis in adults?

A

Flat bone diploe and some irregular bones (like the hip bone)

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47
Q

Can yellow marrow convert to red marrow? Why or why not?

A

Yes, if the person becomes anemic

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48
Q

What is a tuberosity?

A

Large, rounded projection, may be roughened

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49
Q

What is a crest?

A

Narrow ridge of bone, usually prominent

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50
Q

What is a trochanter?

A

Very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process

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51
Q

Where is the only location of the trochanter?

A

The femur

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52
Q

What is a line?

A

Narrow ridge of a bone, less prominent than a crest

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53
Q

What is a tubercle?

A

Small rounded projection or process

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54
Q

What is a epicondyle?

A

Raised area on or above a condyle

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55
Q

What is a spine?

A

Sharp, slender, often pointed projection

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56
Q

What is a process?

A

Any bony prominence

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57
Q

What is a head?

A

Bony expansions carried on a narrow neck

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58
Q

What is a facet?

A

Smooth, nearly flat joint suface

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59
Q

What is a condyle?

A

Rounded articular projection, often articulates with a corresponding fossa

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60
Q

What is a groove?

A

Furrow

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61
Q

What is a fissure?

A

Narrow, slitlike opening

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62
Q

What is a foramen?

A

Round or oval opening through a bone

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63
Q

What is a notch?

A

Indentation at the edge of a structure

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64
Q

What is a meatus?

A

Canal-like passageway

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65
Q

What is a sinus?

A

Cavity within a bone, filled with air and lined with a mucous membrane

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66
Q

What is a fossa?

A

Shallow, basin-like depression in a bone, often serving as an articular surface

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67
Q

What are osteogenic cells?

A

Also called osteoprogenitor, mitotically active stem cells in periosteum and endosteum

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68
Q

What happens when osteogenic cells are stimulated?

A

They differentiate into osteoblasts or bone-lining cells, some remain as osteogenic stem cells

69
Q

What are osteoblasts?

A

Bone-forming cells that secrete unmineralized bone matric called osteoid

70
Q

What are osteoids made up of?

A

Collagen and calcium-binding proteins. Collage makes up 90% of bone protein

71
Q

Osteoblasts are ______ mitotic

A

Actively

72
Q

What are osteocytes?

A

Mature bone cells in lacunae that no longer divide. They maintain the bone matrix and acts as stress or strain sensors

73
Q

What do osteocytes respond to?

A

Mechanical stimuli such as increased force on bone or weightlessness

74
Q

What do osteocytes communicate information to?

A

Osteoblast and osteoclasts so bone remodeling can occur

75
Q

What is an osteoclast cell?

A

Cells that destroy bone

76
Q

What are bone-lining cells?

A

Flat cells on bone surfaces believed to also help maintain the matrix, along with osteocytes

77
Q

On the external bone surface, lining cells are called _________

A

Periosteal cells

78
Q

On the internal surface, lining cells are called _________

A

Endosteal cells

79
Q

What are osteoclats?

A

Derived from the same hematopoietic stem cells that become macrophages. They are giant, multinucleate cells that function in bone resorption

80
Q

What characteristic do osteoclast cells have?

A

The cell has ruffled borders that serve to increase surface area for enzyme degradation of bone. It also helps seal off the area from the surrounding matrix

81
Q

What does compact bone consist of?

A

Osteon, canals, canaliculi, interstitial lamellae, and circumferential lamellae

82
Q

What is an osteon?

A

The structural unit of compact bone that consists of an elongated cylinder that runs parallel to the long axis of bone. They act as tiny weight-bearing pillars

83
Q

What does an osteon cylinder consist of?

A

Several rings of bone matric called lamellae

84
Q

What does lamellae contain and what does it withstand?

A

Lamellae contain collagen fibers that rub in different directions in adjacent rings. Bone salts are found between collagen fibers

85
Q

Where does the central canal run through?

A

The core of the osteon

86
Q

What does the central canal contain?

A

Blood vessels and nerve fibers

87
Q

What are perforating canals?

A

Canals lined with endosteum that occur at right angles to the central canal

88
Q

What do perforating canals connect?

A

Blood vessels and nerves of the periosteum, medullary cavity, and the central canal

89
Q

What are lacunae?

A

Small cavities that contain osteocytes

90
Q

What is canaliculi?

A

Hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and to the central canal

91
Q

What do osteoblast that secrete bone matrix maintain contact with?

A

Each other and osteocytes via cell projections with gap junctions

92
Q

What happens when the matrix hardens and cells are trapped in the canaliculi form?

A

Allows communication between all osteocytes of the osteon and permits nutrients and wastes to be relayed from one cell to another

93
Q

What is interstitial lamellae?

A

Lamellae that are not part of the osteon. Some fill gaps between the forming osteons, and others are remnants of osteons cut by bone remodeling

94
Q

What is circumferential lamellae?

A

Just deep to the periosteum, but superficial to the endosteum. These layers of lamellae extend around the entire surface of diaphysis. They help the long bone to resist twisting

95
Q

How does spongy bone appear?

A

Appears poorly organized but is actually organized along lines of stress to help bone resist any stress

96
Q

What do trabeculae do?

A

Confer strength to bone, like cables on a suspension bridge

97
Q

Are osteons present in trabeculae?

A

No osteons are present, but trabeculae do contain irregularly arranged lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi

98
Q

How is the trabeculae nourished?

A

Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients

99
Q

Bone is made up of ________ and ______ components

A

Organic and Inorganic

100
Q

What are the organic components of bone?

A

Includes osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, bone-lining cells, osteoclasts, and osteoid

101
Q

What are osteoid secreted by?

A

Osteoblasts

102
Q

How much of the organic bone matrix is made up of osteoids?

A

One-third

103
Q

What do osteoids consist of?

A

Ground substance and collagen fibers, which contribute to high tensile strength and flexibility of bone

104
Q

What are the inorganic components of bone?

A

Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)

105
Q

What percentage does hydroxyapatites make up bone by mass?

A

65%

106
Q

What does hydroxyapatites consist of?

A

Tiny calcium phosphate crystals in and around collagen fibers

107
Q

What are hydroxyapatites responsible for?

A

Hardness and resistance to compression

108
Q

What is osteogenesis (ossification)?

A

The process of bone tissue formation

109
Q

What are the different ossifications in development?

A

Formation of the bony skeleton begins in month 2 of development, postnatal bone growth occurs until early adulthood, and bone remodeling repair are lifelong

110
Q

What is the formation of the bony skeleton?

A

Up to about week 8, fibrous membranes and hyaline cartilage of the fetal skeleton are replaced with bone tissue

111
Q

What is endochondral ossification?

A

Bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage. Bones are called cartilage (endochondral bones), they form most of the skeleton (long bones). Mesenchymal cells specialize into osteoblasts. Begins at the primary ossification center

112
Q

What is intramembranous ossification?

A

Bone develops from fibrous membrane. Bones are called membrane bones. Flat bones of skill, some facial bones, and part of the clavicle

113
Q

Long bones grow lengthwise by __________ growth of the ________ plate

A

Interstitial (longitudinal) of the epiphyseal plate

114
Q

Bones increase thickness through ________ growth

A

Appositional

115
Q

Bones stop growing during _______ but some ________ continue to grow slowly through life

A

Adolescence, facial bones

116
Q

Near the end of adolescence _______ divide less often

A

Chondroblasts

117
Q

What occurs at the end of adolescence?

A

Epiphyseal plate thins, then is replaced by bone. The epiphyseal plate closure occurs when the epiphysis and diaphysis fuse

118
Q

When does bone lengthening stop?

A

Females = around 18 years of age
Males = occurs around 21 years of age

119
Q

Growing bones widen as they lengthen through __________

A

Appositional growth

120
Q

Bones _______ in response to increased ______ from muscle activity or added weight

A

Thicken, stress

121
Q

Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum secrete bone matrix on _______

A

External bone

122
Q

Osteoclasts ________ bone on _______ surface

A

Remove, endosteal

123
Q

Usually, there is more _______ than _______ which leads to _________

A

Building up, building down, stronger bones that are not too heavy

124
Q

What is growth hormone’s role in bone growth?

A

Most important hormone in stimulating epiphyseal plate activity in infancy and childhood

125
Q

What is thyroid hormone’s role in bone growth?

A

Modulates activity of growth hormone, ensuring proper proportions

126
Q

What does testosterone and estrogens at puberty do for bone growth?

A

Promote adolescent growth spurts and ends growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure

127
Q

What does calcitonin and parathyroid hormone do for bone growth?

A

Control blood calcium levels by inhibiting (calcitionin) or promoting (PTH) osteoclast activity

128
Q

What percentage of bone mass is recycled each week?

A

5-7%

129
Q

How long does it take for spongy bone to be replaced?

A

3-4 years

130
Q

How long does it take for compact bone to be replaced?

A

Every 10 years

131
Q

What does bone remodeling consist of?

A

Both bone deposit and bone resorption

132
Q

New bone matrix is deposited by ___________

A

Osteoblasts

133
Q

Resorption is the function of _________

A

Osteoclasts

134
Q

Bone remodeling occurs at _______

A

Surfaces of both periosteum and endosteum

135
Q

What is the PTH control of blood calcium levels?

A

Calcium homeostasis of blood: 9-11mg/100 mL is the balance —> then the stimulus is falling blood Ca^2 levels –> then the parathyroid glands release parathyroid hormone –> parathyroid hormone goes up –> osteoclasts degrade the bone matrix and releases Ca^2 into blood

136
Q

What is hypocalcemia and what does it cause?

A

Low levels of calcium cause hyperexcitability

137
Q

What is hypercalcemia and what does it cause?

A

High levels of calcium cause nonresponsiveness

138
Q

What can sustained high blood calcium levels lead to?

A

Deposits of calcium salts in blood vessels or kidneys and the formation of kidney stones

139
Q

Most fractures result from trauma in what age group?

A

Youth

140
Q

Most fracturs result from weakness of bone due to bone thinning in what age group?

A

Old age

141
Q

What are the three either/or fracture classifications?

A

Position of bone ends
Completeness of break
Whether skin is penetrated

142
Q

What is the position of bone ends after fracture classification?

A

Nondisplaced = ends retain normal position and displaced = ends are out of normal alignment

143
Q

What is the completeness of break classification?

A

Complete = broken all the way through and incomplete = not broken all the way through

144
Q

What is the whether skin is penetrated classfiication?

A

Open (compound) = skin is penetrated and closed (simple) = skin is not penetrated

145
Q

What is comminuted fracures?

A

Bone fragments into three or more pieces, it’s particularly common in the aged, whose bones are more brittle

146
Q

What is a compression fracture?

A

Bone is crushed, it’s common in porous bones (osteoporotic bones) subjected to extreme trauma, like in a fall

147
Q

What is a spiral fracture?

A

A ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone, it’s a common sports fracture

148
Q

What is a epiphyseal fracture?

A

The epiphysis separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate. It tends to occur where cartilage cells are dying and calcification of the matrix is occuring

149
Q

What is a depressed fracture?

A

A sad fracture :(

Actually a broken bone portion that is pressed inward, it’s typical of a skull fracture

150
Q

What is a greenstick fracture?

A

The bone breaks incompletely, much in the way a green twig breaks. Only one side of the shaft brakes, the other side bends. It’s common in children, whose bones have relatively more organic matrix and are more flexible than those of adults

151
Q

What is the fracture repair sequence?

A
  1. A hematoma forms
  2. Fibrocartilaginous callus forms
  3. Bony callus forms
  4. Bone remodeling occurs
152
Q

Imbalances between bone deposit and bone resorption underlie __________

A

Nearly every disease that affects the human skeleton

153
Q

What are the three major bone diseases?

A

Osteomalacia/rickets, osteoporosis, and Paget’s disease

154
Q

What is osteomalacia?

A

Bones are poorly mineralized, osteoid is produced, but calcium salts are not adequately deposited. It results in soft weak bones and causes pain upon bearing weight

155
Q

What is rickets?

A

Osteomalacia of children. It results in bowed legs and other bone deformities because bone ends are enlarged and abnormally long. It’s caused by vitamin D deficiency or insufficent dietary calcium

156
Q

What is osteoporosis?

A

A group of diseases in which bone resorption exceeds deposit. The matrix remains normal, but bone mass declines. The spongy bone of the spin and neck of the femur are most susceptible. Vertebral and hip fractures are common

157
Q

What are the risk factors for osteoporosis?

A

Most often aged, postmenopausal women. Affects 30% of women aged 60-70 years and 70% by age 80. Estrogen plays a role in bone density, so when levels drop at menopause, women run higher risk. Men are less prone due to protection by the effects of testosterone

158
Q

What are additional risk factors for osteoporosis?

A

Insufficient exercise to stress bones, diet poor in calcium and protein, smoking, genetics, hormone-related conditions like hyperthyroidism and diabetes mellitus, and consumption of alcohol or certain medications

159
Q

What is the treatment for osteoporosis?

A

Calcium, vitamin D supplements, weight bearing exercises, HRT (slows bone loss but does not reverse it, and is controversial because of increased risk of heart attack, stroke, and breast cancer_

160
Q

What is Paget’s Disease?

A

Excessive and haphazard bone deposit and resorption cause bone to grow fast and develop poorly. The bone is called Pagetic bone. There is a very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced mineralization. It usually occurs in the spine, pelvis, femur, and skull. It rarely occurs before age 40. The cause is unknown, possibly viral.

161
Q

What is the treatment for Paget’s Disease?

A

Calcitonin and bisphosphonates

162
Q

Most long bones begin by _______, with primary ossification centers developed by ________

A

8 weeks, week 12

163
Q

At birth, most long bones are _______

A

Ossified, except at epiphyses

164
Q

Epiphyseal plates persist through _______

A

Childhood and adolescense

165
Q

When are all bones completely ossified, and when skeletal growth ceases?

A

~25 years of age

166
Q

What is Osgood-Shlatter’s disease?

A

Common cause of knee pain in growing adolescents. It’s inflammation of the area where the patellar tendon attaches to the tibia (tibial tuberosity). It usually resolves on it’s own

167
Q

What is achondroplasia?

A

Congenital condition involving defective cartilage and endochondral bone growth. The limbs are too short, but the membrane bone are normal size. It’s a form of dwarfism

168
Q

What is acromegaly?

A

When your pituitary gland produces too much hormone during adulthood. It’s usually caused by a noncancerous tumor. it causes enlargement of the bones in the face, hands, and feet

A&P 1 Summer 2023 (17 decks)

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