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Anatomy > Z332 final > Flashcards

Z332 final Flashcards

1
Q

Primary sex organs

A

production of gametes and sex hormones

gonads = testes and ovaries

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2
Q

secondary (accessory) sex organs

A

transporting and sustaining gametes

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3
Q

hormones

A

chemical signals produced by endocrine (ductless) glands
long distance in blood and/or lymph
prolonged effects

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4
Q

erectile tissue

A

corpus spongiosum and corpus cavernosa

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5
Q

scrotal temp

A

normal body temp 37 C, scrotal temp ~3 lower

necessary for normal spermatogenesis, higher temps –> decreased fertility

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6
Q

dartos and cremaster muscles

A

control surface area and distance from body

control scrotal temp

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7
Q

pampiniform plexus

A

countercurrent heat exchange

network of veins and arteries, cool venous blood absorbs heat from arterial blood

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8
Q

ways to control scrotal temp

A

dartos and cremaster muscles
pampiniform plexus
sweat glands
lack of fat layer

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9
Q

cryptorchidism

A

undescended testes
typically descend from abdominal cabity 1-2 months before birth
unilateral or bilateral
reduced fertility and increased risk of testicular cancer

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10
Q

seminal vesicle

A

60-70% vol of semen

bicarbonate (increase pH), prostaglandins, fructose, citrate, coagulating proteins, ions

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11
Q

prostate

A

25% vol of semen

citrate (increase pH), enzymes break down clot, seminalplasmnin (antibiotic), ions

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12
Q

bulbourethral gland

A

~1% vol semen

mucous/lubrication, increase pH to neutralize urethra

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13
Q

benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)

A

enlargement of prostate, elderly men, hormone level change with age, risk of bladder infections, kidney damage

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14
Q

prostate cancer

A

second most common cancer death, androgen dependent, cancerous tissue leaks more PSA (prostate specific antigen) into circulation

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15
Q

spermatogenesis

A

400 million/day
in seminiferous tubules
diploid spermatogonia stem cells –> haploid sperm
spermatids to mature sperm: elongation, get rid of excess cytoplasm, form tail

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16
Q

mitosis end product

A

2 daughter cells identical to each other and parent
diploid
produce cells for growth and repair

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17
Q

meiosis end product

A

4 daughter cells genetically different from each other and parent
haploid
produce cells for reproduction = gametes (sperm and eggs)

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18
Q

spermatogonia

A

diploid stem cell, divides by mitosis

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19
Q

at puberty…

A

2 types of daughter cells (A and B) from spermatogonia mitosis

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20
Q

type A daughter cells from spermatogonia

A

stays at basal lamina

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21
Q

type B daughter cells from spermatogonia

A

moves toward lumen

becomes primary spermatocyte

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22
Q

primary spermatocyte

A

goes through meiosis

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23
Q

after meiosis I

A

2 haploid secondary spermatocytes

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24
Q

after meiosis II

A

four total haploid spermatids

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25
Q

sperm head

A

mostly nucleus/DNA

genetic

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26
Q

acrosome

A

contains hydrolytic enzymes for penetrating egg

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27
Q

midpiece of sperm

A

lots of mitochondria for energy

metabolic

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28
Q

sperm tail

A

flagellum

locomotor

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29
Q

leydig cells

A

secrete testosterone

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30
Q

sertoli cells

A 
sustentocytes 
supportive roles, nutrients 
move cells to lumen
secrete testicular fluid
phagocytosis 
chemicals to regulate spermatogenesis
blood-testis barrier 
secrete ABP and inhibin (high sperm count  = high inhibin)
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31
Q

blood-testes barrier

A

tight junctions between sertoli cells
maintains environment
excludes toxins
prevents sperm antigens from entering blood
spermtogonia are outside barrier
type B daughter cells pass through junctions

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32
Q

epididymis

A

where sperm are collected and mature

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33
Q

sperm stored in

A

ductus deferens

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34
Q

path of sperm

A

seminiferous tubules, epididymis, ductus deferens, urethra

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35
Q

hypothalamic - pituitary - gonadal axis

A

hypothalamus –> anterior pituitary –> gonads –> sex hormones

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36
Q

releasing hormones in hypothalamic - pituitary - gonadal axis

A

secreted by hypothalamic neurons, stimulate pituitary

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37
Q

tropic hormone in hypothalamic - pituitary - gonadal axis

A

regulated activity of other endocrine organs

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38
Q

GnRH

A

gonadotropin-releasing hormone

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39
Q

FSH

A

follicle-stimulating hormone

stimulates sertoli cells to secrete ABP (keep T concentration high around spermatogenic cells)

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40
Q

LH

A

luteinizing hormone
stimulates leydig cells to secrete T and little estrogen
elevated T triggers spermatogenesis

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41
Q

endocrine control

A

hypothalamus –> anterior pituitary –> testes –> testosterone secretion and other effects

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42
Q

testosterone

A

development of male reproductive structures depends on prenatal secretion of male hormones
maintains sex organs (low T = low fertility)
secondary sex characteristics
some converted to estrogen or DHT

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43
Q

clitoris homologous structure

A

glans penis and corpus cavernosa

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44
Q

labia majora homologous structure

A

scrotum

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45
Q

labia minora homologous structure

A

spongy urethra

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46
Q

paraurethral gladn homologous structure

A

prostate gland

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47
Q

bulb of vestibule homologous structure

A

corpus spongiosum

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48
Q

grater vestibular gland homologous structure

A

bulbourethral glands

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49
Q

SRY region

A

on Y chromosome, master switch

initiates testes development

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50
Q

XO

A

turners syndrome

female w/o ovaries

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51
Q

XXY

A

klinefelter’s syndrome

male, usually sterile

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52
Q

YO

A

males die during development

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53
Q

wolffian duct

A

future male duct

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54
Q

mullerian duct

A

future female duct

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55
Q

differences in external genitalia are largely driven by

A

production of DHT in the dermal layers of urethral folds and labioscrotal swellings

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56
Q

females produce eggs (follicular maturation) and males produce sperm in response to

A

FSH

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57
Q

endometrium

A

stratum basalis and stratum functionalis

sf sloughed off during menstruation

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58
Q

menstrual cycle

A

changes in endometrium in response to varying ovarian hormones
constriction of blood vessels = oxygen deprevation and cells die
sloughing of stratum functionalis

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59
Q

ovulation at day

A

14

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60
Q

phases of menstrual cycle

A

menstrual flow : 1-5
proliferative phase: 5-14
ovulation: 14
secretory phase: 14-28

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61
Q

oogenesis

A

years to complete
lifetime supply of primary oocytes at birth
only ~500 released over life

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62
Q

steps in oogenesis

A 
diploid oogonia (stem cell) divides by mitosis
oogonia gradually turn into primary oocytes which start meiosis but arrest early
each month 1 primary oocyte continues through meiosis
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63
Q

meiosis of primary oocyte results in

A

2 unequally sized haploid cells: secondary oocyte and first polar body

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64
Q

secondary oocyte

A

arrests in metaphase II of meiosis
this is ovulated cell
if no sperm penetration - deteriorates
sperm penetration - completes meiosis resulting in large ovum and small secondary polar body

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65
Q

end result of secondary oocyte meiosis

A

three small polar bodies and 1 large ovum

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66
Q

primordial follicle surrounds

A

primary oocyte

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67
Q

proliferation of cells –>

A

secondary follicle

granulosa cells interact w/ oocyte

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68
Q

late secondary follicle

A

extr cells, connective tissue layer

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69
Q

vesicular (graafian) follicle

A

fluid filled cavity (antrum) forms

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70
Q

2 phases of ovarian cycle

A

follicular and luteal

whole ovarian cycle ~28 days

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71
Q

luteal phase

A

ruptured follicle collapses after ovulation

remaining granulosa cells enlarge to form corups luteum (endocrine structure)

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72
Q

corpus luteum

A

no pregnancy: degenerates, stops producing hormones, forms corpus albicans
pregnancy: persists (until placenta is producing hormones) due to hCG secretion from embryo’s chorion

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73
Q

endocrine control (female)

A

hypothalamus –> anterior pituitary –> ovaries –> estrogen secretion and other effects

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74
Q

LH

A

triggers ovulation, production of E2

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75
Q

follicles release

A

E2 and inhibin

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76
Q

corpus luteum releases

A

E2, P4, inhibin, and relaxin

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77
Q

both LH and FSH stimulate

A

follicles to secrete estrogen

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78
Q

E2

A

estrogen

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79
Q

P4

A

progesterone

from corpus luteum

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80
Q

3 phases in female reproductive cycle

A

menstrual, preovulatory, postovulatory

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81
Q

menstrual phase

A

~5 days, stratum functionalis sheds (50-150ml blood, tissue fluid, mucus, cells)
E2 and P4 low: inhibition of GnRH, FSH, and LH

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82
Q

preovulatory phase

A

variable in length, dominant follicle secreting E2 –> stimulates regeneration of stratum functionalis (endometrium )
cervical mucus thins
ovulation at end of this phase

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83
Q

ovarian cycle=

A

menstrual phase and preovulatroy phase

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84
Q

ovulation

A

follicle is almost mature it releases more and more estrogen under influence of LH
high levels of E2 exert positive feedback on Hypo/Ant. Pti. –> LH surge –> ovulation

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85
Q

postovulatory phase

A

ruptured follicle collapses = corpus luteum (influenced by LH, produces E2, P4, etc)

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86
Q

lack of P4–>

A

menstruation

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87
Q

E2 and P4 inhibits

A

FSH

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88
Q

corpus luteum releases P4 –>

A

slight increase in temp

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89
Q

hCG

A

human chorionic gonadotropin

home pregnancy kits detect this

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90
Q

4 stages of sexual response cycle

A

desire
arousal
orgasm (emission, ejaculation) - shortest, intense
resolution

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91
Q

flaccid

A

at rest vessels constricted

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92
Q

during erotic stimulus….

A

NO from parasympathetic nerves dilates arteries = increase blood flow
veins cannot drain –> erection

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93
Q

emission and ejaculation from _____reflexes

A

sympathetic and somatic

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94
Q

Viagra

A

phosphodiesterase inhibitor increases nitric oxide

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95
Q

emission stage of male orgasm

A

sympathetic response of moving sperm and semen through ducts

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96
Q

capacitation

A

sperm becoming motile
undergo capacitation in female reproductive tract after insemination
2-10 hours
acrosome membrane weakens

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97
Q

oxytocin

A

increases muscular contractions during ejaculation

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98
Q

resolution phase

A 
sympathetic signals constrict artery and reduce blood flow to penis 
cardiovascular and respiratory responses back to normal
refractory period (~10 mins to few hours)
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99
Q

estrogen

A

development, maintenance of female reproductive structures
secondary sex characteristics
lower blood cholesterol

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100
Q

progesterone

A

prepare/maintain endometrium for implantation

prepare mammary glands

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101
Q

proliferative phase of menstrual/uterine cycle

A

functional layer of endometrium is rebuilt

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102
Q

secretory phase of menstrual/uterine cycle

A

begins immediately after ovulation, enrichment of blood supply and glandular secretion of nutrients prepare endometrium to receive an embryo
corresponds to luteal phase

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103
Q

menstrual phase + proliferative phase =

A

follicular phase

before ovulation

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104
Q

fertilization in

A

ampulla of fallopian tube

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105
Q

cervix has grooves and mucous that filter

A

most well developed sperm for entry (millions in vagina, only thousands make it too uterus)

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106
Q

flowback

A

in 94% of copulation

less than 1% of sperm might be retained in female reproductive tract

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107
Q

uterine contractions & orgasm

A

draw sperm and watery midcyclle mucus from cervix to uterus

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108
Q

max sperm retention when

A

female climax >0-1min post ejaculation

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109
Q

testes size comparisons

A

gorilla, orangutan, human, chimp

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110
Q

___ fuels competition

A

testosterone

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111
Q

the presence of an attractive woman….

A

elevates testosterone and physical risk taking in young men

112
Q

females initiate sex more in ______ phase

A

ovulatory

113
Q

higher average ___ in women who orgasmed

A

testosterone (orgasm didn’t lead to elevated T)

high T pre and post intercourse

114
Q

multiple partners associated with _____

A

higher testosterone

115
Q

once ovulated, oocyte in viable for

A

12-24 hours

116
Q

“obstacle course” sperm must travel through

A

flowback
harsh environment (low pH, viscosity, immune)
distance
finding the egg (which tube)

117
Q

fertilization

A

when sperm and egg combine to form zygote
move toward egg due to chemical cues
not first sperm to reach egg

118
Q

path of sperm cell during fertilization

A

corona radiate, zona pellucida (acrosomal reaction), plasma membrane of secondary oocyte, cytoplasm of secondary oocyte

119
Q

after sperm penetration

A

oocyte completes meiosis II
sperm and ovum nuclei swell forming pronuclei
pronuclei approach each other and mitotic spindle forms between them
chromosomes intermix, DNA replicates

120
Q

cleavage

A

rapid mitotic division

121
Q

implantation

A

begin 6-7 days after ovulation

blastocyte implants on endometrium

122
Q

developing zygote secretes hormones to

A

maintain corpus luteum

123
Q

embryo gets nutrients from ____

A

endometrium until placenta is formed

124
Q

placenta gets nutrients from

A

maternal blood by diffusion

active transport - maternal and fetal blood do not mix

125
Q

maternal effects of pregnancy

A

increased MR, blood volume, urine production, uterus size, mammary gland production

126
Q

rising fetal _____ stimulates placental E2

A

adrenocortical hormones (ex: cortisol)

127
Q

____ stimulate uterine muscle contraction

A

oxytocin and prostaglandins

128
Q

hormone axis

A

causal chain of events and structures that lead to an outcome

hypothalamus, pituitary, trop hormones, gland, hormone, target cells

129
Q

intercellular communication

A

direct - gap junction
endocrine - hormones
synaptic - neurotransmitters
paracrine- extracellular fluid

130
Q

lipid-soluble hormones

A

hydrophobic
steroids, thyroid hormones, gases
can pass through membrane
bind to transport protein to travel in blood

131
Q

water-soluble hormones

A

hydrophilic
amines, peptides
travel alone in bloodstream
must bind to receptor on cell membrane

132
Q

all major hormones circulate to…

A

nearly all the body’s tissues

133
Q

_____determines whether a hormone acts on a cell

A

presence or absence of specific receptors (a protein)

receptors can promote or inhibit transcription of different genes

134
Q

target cell

A

cell that has a particular hormones receptors

ex: cell with testosterone receptors is a target cell of T

135
Q

____ often affect gene expression within the cell

A

lipid soluble hormones

receptors can promote or inhibit transcription of different genes

136
Q

direct gene activation

A

steroid hormone diffuses in and binds an intracellular receptor
receptor-hormone complex enters nucleus
receptor-hormone complex binds specific DNA region
binding initiates transcription of the gene to mRNA
the mRNA directs protein synthesis

137
Q

second-messenger signaling systems

A

only method water soluble hormones can act; but both lipid and water soluble can use
can have large effects - signal amplification

138
Q

responsiveness of cell depends on

A

hormone concentration
abundance of receptors for hormone
strength of binding
influences of other hormones: permissiveness, synergistic, antagonistic

139
Q

duration of hormone action

A

usually released in short bursts
increased stimulus = more frequent bursts = increase in concentration
concentration controlled via negative feedback (usually)

140
Q

most hormones subjected to ____ in target tissues and liver

A

enzymatic degradation

–> inactivated, exreted

141
Q

pituitary gland

A

hypophysis

most important/master endocrine gland b/c it secretes tropic hormones

142
Q

hypophyseal portal system

A

tropic hormones of anterior and posterior pituitary enter blood through hypophyseal portal system

artery –> capillary bed
vein –> capillary bed
eventually to heart and whole body

143
Q

humoral stimulus

A

hormone release caused by altered levels of certain critical ions or nutrients

144
Q

neural stimulus

A

hormone release caused by neural input

145
Q

hormonal stimulus

A

hormone release caused by another hormone (a tropic hormone)

146
Q

protein bound hormones cannot diffuse easily out of capillaries so they must…

A

dissociate to become biologically active

147
Q

steroid hormones are synthesized from

A

cholesterol

148
Q

in bloodstream, most testosterone is bound to

A

transport proteins

149
Q

hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis (HPA axis)

A 
hypothalamus 
CRH
pituitary 
ACTH
adrenal cortex
cortisol (glucocorticoid) 
target cells
150
Q

prednisone

A

synthetic glucocorticoid

151
Q

cushing’s syndrome

A

excess glucocorticoids
insomnia, severe fatigue, weak muscles, high bp and blood glucose, thirst, anxiety, depression, fatty hump between shoulders
similar symptoms to chronic stress and/or side effects of synthetic glucocorticoids

152
Q

hypothalamic pituitary thyroid axis (HPT axis)

A 
hypothalamusactive 
TRH
pituitary 
TSH
thyroid
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyroine (T3) 
target cells
153
Q

metabolism

A

sum total of body’s chemical reactions

154
Q

production of thyroid hormones

A

in thyroid follicular cells
iodide oxidized and added to thyroglobulin
results in T1 and T2, combine to form T3 and T4
T4 greater quantity, converted to T3
T3 is most biologically

155
Q

thyroid hormones bind to

A

intracellular receptors

156
Q

only gland that stores large amounts of its hormones

A

thyroid

157
Q

thyroid hormones increase

A

basal metabolic rate and o2 consumption

158
Q

thyroid hormones regulate

A

tissue growth and development and reproduction

blood pressure, body temp

159
Q

grave’s disease

A

hyperthyroidism

anxiety, breast enlargement in men, difficulty concentrating, double vision, etc.

160
Q

goiter

A

enlargement of thyroid gland, due to hyper or hypothyroidism

161
Q

cretinism

A

severe hypothyroidism in infants, mental retardation and physical abnormalities

162
Q

growth hormone axis

A 
hypothalamus
GHRH
pituitary 
hGH
liver
IGF
target cells
163
Q

inhibits release of tropic hormone

A

inhibiting hormone , GHIH

164
Q

growth hormone effects

A

increases rate of protein synthesis
mobilization of fatty acids
decreases glucose utilization
acts synergistically with insulin

165
Q

acromegaly

A

excess GH during childhood, growth of cartilage and membranous bone

166
Q

lack of IGFs in African pygmies results in

A

smaller stature, but still sexually mature

167
Q

ADH

A

antidiuretic hormone, vasopressin

168
Q

stored and released from posterior pituitary

A

ADH and oxytocin

169
Q

ADH produced by

A

hypothalamus

170
Q

role of oxytocin

A

female: childbirth, uterine contractions
male: ejaculation

171
Q

oxytocin is both…

A

hormone and neurotransmitter

the love drug- monogamous and promiscuous voles..

172
Q

as a hormone, oxytocin promote

A

general trust and cooperation

173
Q

melatonin

A

antioxidant
maintains circadian rhythmicity, reflects day length
seasonal changes
pineal gland receives indirect input from SCN
hypothalamus –> reduce GnRH (inhibits reproductive function, many influence time of sexual maturation)

174
Q

SCN

A

suprachiasmatic nucleus
biological clock
photoreceptive optic gangial project to SCN from retina, then to pineal gland

175
Q

seasonal affective disorder

A

SAD
symptoms appear in fall-winter
depression, anxiety, social withdrawal, weigh gain

176
Q

alpha cells

A

from pancreas
glucagon
stimulates glycogen breakdown

177
Q

beta cells

A

from pancreas
insulin
stimulates glycogen formation

178
Q

diabetes mellitus

A

blood glucose concentration increase
cell use of glucose decreases
increase use of fat and protein

179
Q

type 1 diabetes

A

insulin dependent diabetes mellitus
caused by lack of insulin
auto immune disorders, viral infection, hereditary tendency for beta cells to degenerate

180
Q

type 2 diabetes

A

non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus

caused by lack of sensitivity of target cells to metabolic effects of insulin = insulin resistance

181
Q

adrenal gland

A

steroids: mineralcorticoids (zona glomerulosa), glucocorticoids (zona fasciculate), androgens (zona reticularis)
amine derivatives: epinephrine and norepinephrine

182
Q

medulla

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine from chromaffin cells

stimulus: innervation by sympathetic NS
target: everything, enhances sympathetic response

183
Q

stress response

A

combined action of ANS and endocrine system
increase heart rate and force
constriction of blood vessels of viscera and skin
dilation of blood vessels in heart, lungs, brain, skeletal muscle
contraction of spleen
glycogen to glucose in liver
sweating
dilation of airways
decrease digestion
water retention

184
Q

sustained stress can lead to

A

disease: IBS, ulcers (facilitated not caused), hypertension, anxiety/depression, migraines, suppressed immune function, 2/3 of people overeat

185
Q

myocardial ischemia

A

once coronary arteries damaged, they vasoconstrict in response to stress (usually dilate)

186
Q

chronic stress

A

distress

disrupts homeostasis

187
Q

eustress

A

maintains homeostasis

188
Q

calcitonin

A

released from thyroid gland

stimulus: increased Ca
effect: inhibits osteoclasts to decrease Ca levels

189
Q

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

A

stimulus: low Ca
effects: stimulates osteoclasts to increase Ca, acts on kidneys to slow low of Ca and Mg in urine, promotes formation of calcitrol (vit D3) to increase absorption of Ca, Mg and Po4 in GI tract

190
Q

thymus

A

hormones function in development and maintenance of immune system
thymosins

191
Q

thymosins

A

promotes development and maturation of T-lymphocytes (WBC)

192
Q

menopause

A

no more primordial follicles left to develop

193
Q

sex determination

A

sperm: X or Y
eggs: X or X
Y chromosome contain SRY gene, codes for protein that stimulates AMH (anti-mullerian hormone)
female by default, no Y then feminized

194
Q

androgen insensitivity syndrome

A

XY, CAIS (complete, androgen, insensitivity)

external genitalia are female

195
Q

simplest eye has

A

photoreceptor, dark pigment, connection to motor structures

196
Q

cup eye,

A

detects intensity and direction of light, planaria

197
Q

compound eye

A

detailed images, fly

198
Q

camera eye

A

detailed images, human

199
Q

a patch of light sensitive cells could evolve to….

A

complex eye in ~360,000 generations (few hundred thousand years)
complex eye has evolved more than once

200
Q

lateral rectus

A

abducens

201
Q

superior oblique

A

trochlear

202
Q

lacrimal gland

A

CN VII (facial)

203
Q

eye blink nerve

A

facial VII

204
Q

fibrous tunic

A

cornea and sclera

avascular connective tissue

205
Q

conjunctiva

A

covering sclera, vessels

206
Q

vascular tunic

A

choroid, ciliary body, iris

action during accommodation

207
Q

neural tunic

A

retina

208
Q

cornea easily transplanted w/o rejection because

A

avascular

209
Q

sclera is continuous with

A

dura mater on posterior side

210
Q

glaucoma

A

eye disorder in which optic nerve suffers damage, permanently damaging vision in affected eye, progressing to complete blindness. associated with increased pressure of fluid in eyes

211
Q

aqueous humor produced

A

via filtration at ciliary processes, flows through eye, reabsorbed via scleral venous sinus (canal of schlemm)

212
Q

DNA identification

A

vitreous humor can be helpful

213
Q

zonular fibers of lens

A

suspensory ligaments

214
Q

pupil constriction

A

parasympathetic

sphincter pupillae muscle contracts

215
Q

pupil dilation

A

sympathetic

dilator pupil muscle contracts (radial muscle?)

216
Q

tapetum lucidum

A

reflective layer within choroid
helps with night vision
not in humans

217
Q

red eye

A

due to reflectance of light from camera flash on blood vessels at back of eye

218
Q

crystallins

A

in lens, proteins

219
Q

cataracts

A

lens becomes cloudy due to clumping of crystallins

220
Q

accommodation

A

change in lens shape to focus on near object
increases refractory power
sympathetic activation
CN III oculomotor
(when ciliary muscle relaxes, the suspensory ligaments stretch on lens which flattens it)
when ciliary muscle contracts, less pressure to stretch lens so gets fat - convex = focus closer

221
Q

refraction

A

bending of light as it encounters a medium of different density
refracted most when entering cornea
refracted again when entering lens, gets directed to focal point on retina

222
Q

astigmatism

A

curvature of cornea or lens varies from one axis to another, images appear distorted

223
Q

nearsighted

A

eye ball too long

224
Q

farsighted

A

eye ball to short

225
Q

concave lens

A

diverges light , focus on farther image

226
Q

convex lens

A

converges light, focus on closer image

227
Q

nearsighted needs ___ lens

A

concave

228
Q

farsighted needs

A

convex lens

229
Q

lasik surgery

A

reshaped cornea, affecting focal point of light

230
Q

2 layers of retina

A

pigmented layer: prevents light scatter, sores vit A

neural layer: contains photoreceptors, bipolar cells, ganglion cells

231
Q

detached retina

A

separation of pigmented and neural layers
vitreous humor seeps in
blindness if not treated - lack of nutrients for photoreceptors

232
Q

photoreceptors get nutrients from

A

pigmented layer of retina and from choroid

233
Q

rod photopigment

A

rhodopsin (retinal + opsin )

234
Q

cones photopigment

A

photopsin (retinal + an opsin)
3 different opsins - one for each color
one type of opsin per cone

235
Q

cones color

A

red, green, blue

236
Q

fibers going to hypothalamus (suprachiasmatic nucleus) help regulate

A

circadian rhythm

237
Q

olfactory cilia

A

mostly nonmotile, increase surface area

238
Q

olfactory receptors

A

olfactory sensory neurons, bipolar, lifespan 30-60 days

239
Q

nasal epithelium innervated by

A

CN VII facial

240
Q

odorants…

A

must be volatile (airborne) and dissolve in fluid coating olfactory epithelium
bind to receptors, G protein pathway activated and cAMP gated channels opens
most active more than one receptor, most receptor can respond to more than one odorant

241
Q

olfactory transmission…

A

Na and Ca enter cell
impulse transmission due to Na entry
Ca has role in olfactory adaptation

242
Q

olfaction pathway

A

only sensations that go directly to cerebral cortex w/o first synapsing in thalamus
some axons go to limbic system and hypothalamus (emotional memory)
orbitofrontal area: odor identification and discrimination

243
Q

4 types of papillae

A

vallate, fungiform, follate, filiform

244
Q

papillae that have tastebuds

A

vallate, fungiform, follate

245
Q

tastes

A 
sweet - sugar and alcohols 
sour - acids, H+
salty - metal ions, NaCl
bitter - alkaloids, caffeine 
umami- glutamate and aspartate
246
Q

gustatory epithelial cell

A 
receptors/ taste cells
gustatory hairs (microvilli) extend through pore, contact saliva
247
Q

tastants

A

chemicas, must dissolve in saliva to inteact with hair and cause transduction

248
Q

transduction mechanism different for different tastes…

A

salty: influx of Na depolarized cells
sour: H+ acts intracellular to open cation channels
bitter, sweet, umami: receptor coupled with G protein (gustducin), Ca released, cation channels open

249
Q

higher amplitude of sound =

A

louder

250
Q

each 10dB increase is

A

10x increase in intensity

251
Q

threshold of human hearing

A

0-120 (painful )

252
Q

short wave

A

higher frequency, higher pitch

253
Q

human hearing pitch range

A

20-20,000

most sensitive between 1500-4000

254
Q

cerumen

A

earwax, helps remove debris

255
Q

auditory tube

A

pharyngotympanic tube = Eustachian tube

swallowing or yawning opens tube to equalize pressure in middle ear w/ external pressure = ear popping

256
Q

evolutionary history of ear bones

A

stapes from 2nd gill arch

malleus, incus, tympanic annulus from 1st gill arch

257
Q

stapedius muscles and tensor tympani muscles

A

contract reflexively in response to loud sounds, limits vibration of ossicles and helps prevent damage

258
Q

bony labyrinth

A 
cavity with 3 regions (vestibule, semicircular canals, cochlea) 
contains perilymph (continuous with CSF)
259
Q

membranous labyrinth

A 
sacs and ducts lining body labyrinth, suspended in perilymph 
contains endolymph (high K concentration)
260
Q

vestibule

A

contains utricle and saccule, oval window

261
Q

semicircular canals

A

one in each plane, semicircular ducts

262
Q

cochlea 3 compartments

A

scala vestibule: continuous with vestibule, abuts oval window
scala meida: cochlear duct
scala tympani: ends at round window

263
Q

scala tympani and scala vestibule join at

A

helicotroma (apex of spiral)

264
Q

high frequency sound displace basilar membrane

A

near base

265
Q

medium frequency sounds displace basilar membrane

A

near the middle

266
Q

low frequency sounds displace basilar membrane n

A

near apex

267
Q

each hair cells has

A

numerous stereocilia linked together and a single kinocilium

268
Q

movement of basilar membrane bends stereocilia…

A

toward kinocilium = opens cation channel, K and Ca flow in, = graded depolarization
away from kinocilium - channels close, repolarization

269
Q

perception of loudness

A

more movement of membrane = more frequent APs

270
Q

conduction deafness

A

problems with sound conduction through inner ear fluids

blockage, ruptured eardrum, middle ear infection, otosclerosis

271
Q

sensorineural deafness

A

damage due to neural structures (hair cells to auditory cortex)
loss of hair cells throughout life or due to prolonged exposure to loud noises or single explosive loudness
degeneration of cochlear nerves, strokes, tumors, etc.

272
Q

static equilibrium

A

senses position of body relative to force of gravity (linear acceleration)
directed by maculae in utricle (horizontal movement) and saccule (vertivle)
stereocilia and kinocilium project into otolith membrane
otoliths add weight and inertia

273
Q

dynamic equilibrium

A

maintenance of body position in response to rotational acceleration
orientation of semicircular canals,
crista ampullaris

274
Q

equilibrium organs

A

vestibular apparatus (vestibule and semicircular canals)
saccule (macula) - vestibule
utricle (macula) - vestibule
ampulla of semicircular ducts/canals (cupula)

275
Q

vestibular apparatus

A

sends warning signals, does not automatically correct/compensate for forces of equilibrium

Anatomy (16 decks)

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