Week 9 Flashcards
1
Q
Cognition
A
The processes involved in acquiring, storing and using information
- attention
- reasoning
- memory
- decision making
- problem solving
2
Q
Memory
A
The process of encoding, storage and retrieval of information
3
Q
Defining Memory
A
- Encoding
- Storage
- Retrieval
4
Q
Memory - Encoding
A
- The process of getting information into memory
- Attention and Enrichment
5
Q
Memory - Storage
A
- Maintaining the encoded information over time
- Sensory Memory and Short-Term Memory
6
Q
Memory - Retrieval
A
- Recovering information from the memory stores
- Confusion and Recall vs Recognition
7
Q
Memory Processes - Encoding
A
- Code and put into memory
- Acoustic Memory Codes
- Visual Memory Codes
- Semantic Memory Codes
8
Q
Memory Processes - Storage
A
- Maintain in memory
Types of long-term memory
- Episodic
- Procedural
- Semantic
9
Q
Memory Processes - Retreival
A
Recovery from memory Types of retrieval tests
- Recall
- Recognition
10
Q
Memory Processes - Encoding
A
- Code and put into memory
- Acoustic Memory Codes
- Visual Memory Codes
- Semantic Memory Codes
11
Q
Memory Processes - Storage
A
- Maintain in memory
Types of long-term memory
- Episodic
- Procedural
- Semantic
12
Q
Memory Processes - Retreival
A
- Recovery from memory
Types of retrieval tests
- Recall
- Recognition
13
Q
Auditory Memory Code
A
Tunes, sounds we recognise like birds or running water
14
Q
Attention
A
Focusing your awareness on a small range of available stimuli
15
Q
Not all attention is equal . . .
A
The quality of the attention you pay does matter
16
Q
Levels of Processing
A
- Shallow Processing
- Intermediate Processing
- Deep Processing
17
Q
Shallow Processing
A
- Focus on physical features
- such as remembering a short list
- Occurs during maintenance rehearsal
- No focus on meaning
18
Q
Maintenance Rehearsal
A
eg: chanting a phone number until it is dialled
19
Q
Deep Processing
A
- Focus on meaning
- Is it useful in a particular situation
- Creating an image of the item
- Occurs during elaborative rehearsal
20
Q
Elaborative Rehearsal
A
- Eg: Understanding the concept of conditioning
- relating it to something you already know
- Results in better recall
21
Q
Structural Encoding
A
- occurs in shallow processing
- emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus
- eg Is the word written in capital letters?
22
Q
Phonemic Encoding
A
- Occurs in intermediate processing
- emphasizes what a word sounds like
- eg: does the word rhyme with weight
23
Q
Semantic Encoding:
A
- Occurs in Deep Processing
- Emphasizes the meaning of verbal input eg: finish this _____________ .
24
Q
Levels of Processing: Craik and Lockhart (1972)
A
25
Memory Storage
Keeping information in memory over time.
26
Episodic Memory
An event, as it happened
27
Semantic Memory
Generlised Knowledge
28
Procedural Knowledge
How to do things
29
Declarative Memory
* Semantic Memory - I know what a guitar is
* Episodic Memory - I remember buying my first guitat
30
Procedural Memory
* Remembering how to do things
* eg: I remember how to play a guitar
31
Information Processing Model of Memory
1. Stimulus
2. Sensory Registers
* Information lost
3. Short Term Memory
* Information lost
* retrieval
* rehearsal
4. Long Term Memory
* Retrieval
* Information lost
32
Sensory Registers
* One sensory register for every sensory system
* Iconic memory-visual information
* disappears in approx 1/2seconds
* Echoic store-auditory information
* seems to last about 4 seconds
33
Short Term Memory (STM)
* Holds a small amount of information (7 + or – 2)
* Holds for a short amount of time
* Chan be increased by process if chunking
* Limited duration of about 20-30 secs
34
Role of Memory in Rehearsal
* a term for the role of repetition in the retention of memories
* Involves repeating information over and over
* Attempts to process information and store it as a memory
35
Duration of Short Term Memory
* Less than 30 secs without rehearsal
* Rehearsal is the act of repeating information
* Repetition needs to be purposeful to keep it in STM
36
What is Chunking?
* Helps increase the amount of memory held in STM
* Chunk sizes increase with familiarity of the topic
37
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Memory Model (1968)
* Input
* Sensory Memory
* Short Term Memory
* Long term Memory (LTM)
But if STM is all one store why is it that people seem to be able to do visual and verbal tasks at the same time? But have difficulties when trying to do two verbal or two visual tasks at the same time?
* Perhaps STM is two separate components that work together
38
What is Working Memory
* Temporary storage and processing of information
* Solve problems
* Respond to environmental demands
* Achieve goals
39
Working Memory Baddeley (1968)
“It is not simply a storehouse with a number of shelves to hold partially processed information until it moves to the LTM. Working memory is more like a workbench where material is constantly being handled, combined and transformed” (as cited in Matlin, 2005, p.110).
40
Dual Task Method
* Participants asked to verify a sentence
* Asked to remember a sequence of digits
41
Cross-Modal Multi Tasking
Doing two tasks - one visual and one spatial – at the same time
42
Within Modality Multi-Tasking
Doing two verbal or two visual tasks at the same time
43
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model (updated)
* Input
* Sensory Memory
* Central Executive
* Phonological Loop
* Episodic Buffer
* Visuospatial Sketch Pad
* Long Term Memory
44
Phonological Loop
* Rehearses information
* Lasts around 2 seconds
* Rehearsal of material prevents rapid memory decay
45
Episodic Buffer
memory functions as interactive system with a Central Executive function that coordinates the activities of three subordinate or "slave" systems.
46
Visuospatial Sketch Pad
* Stores visual and spatial information
* Can be divided in to VISUAL and TEXTURAL subsystems
47
Working memory has four components
1. Central Executive
2. Phonological loop
3. Visuospatial sketchpad
4. Episodic buffer.
48
Central Executive Memory
Directs attention to relevant information
49
Working Memory vs Short Term Memory
* STM is single component – WM has a number of components
* STM is mostly concerned with holding information for brief periods
* WM is concerned with manipulation of information
* WM connected to how information is processed to service cognition
50
Long Term Memory
* Representation of facts, images, actions and skills
* May persist over a lifetime
* Theoretically limitless in capacity
* Extracting information from LTM is called retrieval
* Relatively permanent storage
51
Declarative Memory
* subsystem with long term memory
* stores facts, information and personal life events
* brings to mind verbally or imagery
* Declares and States
* also called Explicit Memory
52
Episodic Memory
Events as they have been subjectivley experienced
eg: I remember when . . .
53
Semantic Memory
General Knowledge or objective facts and information
54
Retrieval
Locate information in memory and bring it in to consciousness
* Recall
* Recognition
55
Explicit Memory
Specific Memories you can recall
56
What influences Retrieval in Long Term Memory
* Serial Position Effect
* Context Effect (encoding specificity)
* Automaticiy
57
Serial Position Effect
Retrieval is influenced by the order in which you view information
58
The tendency to remember items at the beginning of a list or the end of a list rather than what is in the middle
59
Primary Effect
Remembering what is at the begining of a list or other
60
Context Effect (encoding specificity)
Match between the context in which you encoded information and the context in which you have been asked to retrieve it in.
61
The Context Effect
* Influences on Retrieval
* We can recall information more easily when we are in the same environment as we learned it
* Godden & Baddeley (1975)
62
Retrieval Cues
* Encoding Specifity Principle
* Context-specific memory
63
Encoding Specificity
The more a retrieval cue taps into originally encoded information the more likley you are to remember it.
64
Context Specific memory
* Environmental cues help or hinder recall
* witnesses revisit crime scenes with police
* High school reunions bring back memories
65
State Dependent memory
Memory that is dependent on one's internal state
* Arousal states
* Mood congruent effects
66
Arousal States
If you learn something when calm, it may be harder to recall when anxious. eg: study for a test - recall in exam
67
Mood Congruent Effects
Something you learn when happy could be harder to recall when sad.
68
Automaticity
Implicit (non conscious) information vs Explicit (conscious) information
69
Automaticity
* When information can be retrieved automatically, working memory space is freed up for other tasks.
* The abitlity to recall information from long term memory without effort.
70
Reconstructing Memories
* Retrieved information is never an exact reply of the past
* Memories are not replicas of past experiences,
* They are reconstructions of the past
* can be distorted and inclued innacurate information
71
Misinformation Effect
Occurs when individual recall of an event is altered by misleading post event information
72
Long Term Memory as a Reconstruction
* Memory is not a mental video tape that plays an exact replay of the past
* There are distortions and omissions
* Schemas
* Misinformation
* Expertise
* Flashbulb memories.
73
Schema
* Affect memories in two ways
* influenceing the way information is encoded
* shaping the way information is reconstructed
74
Eyewitness Testimony
* Recall is VERY bad for eye witness recall
* Jurys will be powerfully swayed by eye witness testimony (Loftus, 1979)
* 45% of wrongful conviction cases have occurred due to incorrect eye witness testimony
75
Theories of Forgetting
* Decay Theory
* Interference Theory
* Preactive Interference
* Retroactive Interference
76
Motivated Forgetting
Implies that forgetting can avoid painful memories
77
Decay Theory
Memory is like a fading neural trace that is weakened with disuse
78
Interference Theory
Conflict between new and old memories
* Proactive - Old interferes with new
* Retroactive - New interferes with old
79
Disordered memories
* Anterograde Anmnesia
* Retrograde Amnesia
80
Anteregrage Amnesia
Inability to retain new memories
81
Retrograde Amnesia
Losing memories from a period of the past
82
Consolidation
Neurons in hippocampus form new memories
83
Important Neurotransmitters for Memory
* Glutamate
* Acetylcholine
84
Neuroanatomy of Memory
* Cerebral Cortex
* Prefrontal Cortex
* Hippocampus
* Cerebellum
* Amygdala
85
Neuroanatomy of Memory - Cerebral Cortex
* Memories are consolidated in the hippocampus
* Cerebral cortex stores memories in widely distributed areas
86
Neuroanatomy of Memory - Hippocampus
* Crucial to memory consolidation
* also uses adjacent structures in meidal temporal lobe
87
Neuroanatomy of Memory - Cerebellum
Contains an area crucial to neural circuits for conditioned eyeblink responses
88
Neuroanatomy of Memory - Amygdala
Plays major role inlearned fears and other emotional responses
89
Neuroanatomy of Memory - Prefrontal Cortex
Contains areas important to working memory
90
Pnemonics
* Acronyms
* Acrostics - King Phillip came over for great spaghetti
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus Species
* Rhyming - I before E except after C
91
PQ4R method of study
* Preview
* Question
* Read
* Reflet
* Recite
* Review
