Week 9 Flashcards

Question

Lexicon

Answer 1

* All the words a person understands * Our Mental Dictionary

Answer 2

Pronunciation of our words

Answer 3

Written form of words

Answer 4

The meaning of words in a language

Answer 5

* Phonemes * Morphemes

Answer 6

* Shortest segment of speech that if changed changes the meaning of the word * For example, “luck” consists of 3 phonemes, but only one morpheme.

Answer 7

* Smallest Unit of language with a definable meaning * “Table” has two syllables, tabe ” and “ul,” * Also consists of only a single morpheme, because the syllables alone have no meaning. * “Psychology” has four syllables and two morphemes

Answer 8

* Sometimes we miss parts of a sound * Our Auditory senses have evoveled to deal with gaps * We fill them in so we can perceive them as continuous

Answer 9

* Meaning influences our perception of sounds * Warren 1970 * **“There was time to \_ave”** * is the word shave, save, wave or rave? * **“There was time to \_ave” goodbye to our friends"** * Most people would hear Wave

Answer 10

* Word perception is problematic because not everyone speaks the same * How to say “Did you go to class today” * Would you say “Did You” or “Dijoo” * Pollack & Pickett 1964 * Words are harder to understand when taken out of context * Even when subjects listen to their own voice!

Answer 11

* Speech is easier to understand when heard in a sentence * Usually these words are not separated by any spaces * We use Speech Segmentation for this

Answer 12

We perceive individual words even though we don't pause between words when we hear the sound signal

Answer 13

* In English some sounds are more likely to follow another “Pretty: - Pre is likely to be followed by ty Ty and Ba is likely to be separated into two different words * The way we segment and categorise words is decided by frequency, context, statistical learning and our comprehension of meaning of words

Answer 14

Letters are easier to recognise when then are contained within a word Not so much when they appear alone or are contained in a non word

Answer 15

* Phonemic Restoration * Words Isolated from Conversation * Speech Segmentation * Word Superiority

Answer 16

* A Phoneme in a sentence can be perceived even if it obscured by noise * Knowledge of meaning helps fill in the blanks

Answer 17

* It is difficult to perceive isolated words * Context provided by sentences helps perception of individual words

Answer 18

* Individual words are perceived in spoken sentences * We do not hear the spaces between words * Letters are affected by their surroundings

Answer 19

* We can recognise individual words using perception * This is different from understanding the meaning of those words * Some words are more frequent in certain languages * In English “home” occurs 547 x per million * “Hike” occurs 4 x per million

Answer 20

* We respond faster to High Frequency words * Rayner & Duffy 1986 * Studied Fixation & Gaze times * Looked at eye movements of participants while they were reading * Sentences constructed by changing single swords * The slow waltz captured their attention (Low) * The slow music captured their attention (High)

Answer 21

* Duration of fixation was 37ms longer for uncommon words * Total gaze duration was 87ms longer for uncommon words * Past experience will influence how quickly we access their meaning

Answer 22

* Words often have multiple meanings * How do we decide which meaning to use? * River Bank * Commonwealth Bank

Answer 23

* Swinney 1979 * Within 400ms of hearing Bugs both Ant and Spy were primed * After 700ms only Ant is primed * Context clears up ambiguity and eliminates meanings that are not needed

Answer 24

* Swinney 1979 Listening Task * Context clears up ambiguous meaning * Priming supports decision making to decide which word to select

Answer 25

* Tanenhaus et al 1979 * Subjects heard sentences like: * “She held the rose” (rose as a noun) * “They all rose” (rose as a verb) * Primed word by either using a noun or a verb * Noun Prime - She held a rose --\> flower * Verb Prime - They all rose --\> flower * Priming effect is stronger for noun noun. Both meaning are primed at 0 delay compared to control sentence, but after 200 ms only the noun prime remains.

Answer 26

* Traxler 2012 * Many words have multiple meanings * Not all meanings are created equal * Meaning Dominance * Biased Dominance * Balanced Dominance * Some words like CAST are equal in dominance * Cast of the play * Plaster Cast

Answer 27

Some word meanings occur more often than others

Answer 28

* Words have multiple meanings * Some have high frequency and dominance * Some have low frequency and dominance

Answer 29

When words with multiple meanings have equal balance and the same dominance

Answer 30

* Word Frequency * Lexical Ambiguity * Accessing word meanings is complicated and influenced by many factors * Word frequency determines how long it takes to process meaning * Context determines the meaning we access * Correct context choice depends on word frequency, dominance and context

Answer 31

* Study of the psychological process of acquiring and perceiving language * CRAS - * Comprehension * Representation * Acquisition * Speech Production

Answer 32

* Includes: phonology, orthography and semantics * Word components use phonemes and morphemes to construct them

Answer 33

* Phonemic Restoration * Words Isolated from Conversational Speech * Word Superiority

Answer 34

* Word Frequency * Lexical Ambiguity

Answer 35

* Semantics is in the meaning of words in a language * Syntax * Parsing

Answer 36

* Rules for combining words into sentences * These sentences are a string of words in sequence

Answer 37

* Mentally grouping words into phrases * Helps listener create meaning

Answer 38

* Two famous neuropsychology studies * Paul Broca 1861 * Carl Wernicke 1879 * Broca's Area is connected to syntax and structure of sentences * Wernicke's Area connected to semantics and Understanding word meaning.

Answer 39

* (a) The N400 wave of the ERP is affected by the meaning of the word. * N400 response is associated with structures in the temporal lobe. * (b) The P600 wave of the ERP is affected by grammar. * P600 response is associated with structures in the frontal lobe, more toward the front of the brain.

Answer 40

* After the musician played the piano … a … she left the stage b … she bowed to the audience c … the crowd cheered cheerfully d… was wheeled off of the stage

Answer 41

* Sentences seem to begin with one meaning but finish meaning something else * Called Garden Path Sentences * Only one syntactical structure guided by heuristics considered at first * Rules allow us to make quick decisions * Simplest syntactical structure is chosen

Answer 42

* Parser assumes new word is part of current phrase * Semantics do not influence syntactic construction * When syntactic structure is incompatible with semantic information initial structure is revised

Answer 43

* Information in addition to syntax is used in processing sentences * Context and Words used to predict how sentences should be parsed * Word meanings influence this. * Our knowledge of word meanings impact sentences Sentence 2 is more difficult to figure out because there are two possible meanings

Answer 44

* Influence of Word Meaning * Influence of Story Context * Visual World Paradigm

Answer 45

* Context and words both used to predict how a sentence should be parsed * Syntax is also used to process a sentence * “The horse raced past the barn fell” is confusing without context.

Answer 46

* Tanenhaus 1995 * Sentence interpretation influenced by meanings of words * Influenced by the meaning of a scene we are observing * Subjects process information they see in a visual scene

Answer 47

* Interpretation 1: * The relevant apple is the one on the towel. * Interpretation 2: * Move the apple onto the towel. Tanenbaum tracked eye movements

Answer 48

Relative Clause vs Main Verb **Sentence [12]** in the figure to the right occurs less frequently, so we are more likely to read the sentences as if we were reading **sentence [11]** until they diverge in meaning.

Answer 49

* Semantics and Syntax affected by different brain areas * Errors of semantics and syntax can generate ERPS * Words in a sentence can affect processing of ambiguous sentences * Temporary Ambiguity can be caused by expectations and can change with experience

Answer 50

* Semantics and Syntax processed by different areas * Broca Frontal Lobe responsible for syntax * Wernicke Temporal Lobe responsible for semantics

Answer 51

* Errors of Semantics and Syntax generate ERP * These errors are processed differently in the brain * Semantics produce N400 and Syntax produce P600 pulses on and ERP

Answer 52

Semantics can affect sentence processing e,g, The spy saw the man with binoculars The spy saw the man, with binoculars The spy saw, the man with binoculars

Answer 53

* Information in a visual scene can affect sentence processing * Different scenes cause different sentence processing * Visual context of a scene can affect sentence processes

Answer 54

* Caused by expectations and can change with experience * Uncommon sentence structure creates more ambiguity * Effect decreases with experience * Past experience with language affect sentence processing

Answer 55

* Semantics is the meaning of words in a language. * Syntax is the rules that make meaning of language

Answer 56

Grouping parts of sentences to create meaning

Answer 57

* Broca's area linked to syntax and structure of sentences * Wernicke's Area linked to semantics and understanding meaning

Answer 58

* N400 wave affects meaning of a word in Temporal Lobe * P600 wave affects grammar in Frontal Lobe

Answer 59

* Sentences appear to mean one thing at first but end up meaning something else * Garden Path Model says we consider in syntactical structure at a time until the sentence no longer makes sense

Answer 60

Information offered by syntax and semantics are considered simultaneously as we read or listen to words

Answer 61

We process information about a sentence along with the context of how we see a visual field

Answer 62

* Uncommon sentence constructions create ambiguity * This effect can be reduced with experience

Answer 63

* Sentences are more than the sum of their words * Stories are more than just the sum of their sentences * Inferences determine what text means * We use knowledge and experience to comprehend beyond the text

Answer 64

* Bransford & Johnson 1973 * Subjects read passages and were tested to see what they could remember * e.g. *John was trying to fix the birdhouse. He was pounding the nail when his father came out to watch him and help him do the work*. * Subjects more likely to indicate they had seen the next passage:' * *John was using a hammer to fix the birdhouse when his father came out to watch him and help him do the work.* * They inferred that John was using a hammer from the information about the nail.

Answer 65

* The way a person presents text in their mind so that they relate one part of the text to the next. * **Inferences create connections essential to coherence in text** * Transformation of words, sentences and sequences of text into meaningful story * Sometimes harder for less skilled readers or writers

Answer 66

1. Anaphoric Inferences 2. Instrument Inferences 3. Causal Inferences

Answer 67

* Inferences that connect an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence. “Riffifi , the famous poodle, won the dog show. She has now won the last three shows she has entered.”

Answer 68

Inferences about Tools or Methods to produce stories e.g. ”William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet while he was sitting at his desk.”

Answer 69

Inferences that events described on one sentence were caused by events in the previous sentence e.g. Sharon took an aspirin. Her headache went away.

Answer 70

* People use their knowledge to infer connections between different parts of stories * Knowledge helps the process of **Comprehension** * Consider the nature of Mental Representation we form when we read a story

Answer 71

A mental representation of what a text is about We simulate perceptual and motor characteristics of objects and actions in a story.

Answer 72

* Olaf Hauk 2004 * Determined the link between movement, action words and brain activation using fMRI * Activation more extensive for actual movements but reading the words happens in roughly the same part of the brain

Answer 73

* Metusalem et al. 2012 * Recorded subjects ERP as they read scenarios *“The band was very popular and Joe was sure the concert would be sold out. Amazingly, he was able to get a seat down in front. He couldn’t believe how close he was when he saw the group walk out onto the ( stage / guitar / barn ) and start playing.”*

Answer 74

* Metusalem et al. 2012 * Recorded subjects ERP as they read expected/event related/event unrelated scenarios * N400 becomes larger when the word does not fit the sentence * Subjects knowledge of guitar connected to concerts produce smaller N400 than barn

Answer 75

* Subjects infer meaning beyond sentence wording * We can create **Coherence** using anaphoric, instrument and causal inferences * Creative processes are based on past experience and help create **Coherence**

Answer 76

* Motor areas of the cortex activated by action words * Reader's responses to words include simulation of action

Answer 77

* Readers access most likely word fit and related words according to experience * Experience with situations leads to Predictions

Answer 78

* Conversation is two or more people talking together * Each person needs to take heed of what the others are saying * Pickering & Garrod 2004 * Other people's knowledge influences the topic being discussed

Answer 79

* Haviland & Clark 1974 * States that speaker should construct sentences that includes two kinds of information * Given Information * New Information * Subjects took longer to comprehend two sentences when they didn't follow this formula

Answer 80

* Isaacs & Clark 1987 * Speakers mutual knowledge, beliefs and assumptions * Paired up subjects who each had the same postcards of New York * Subject 1 cards arranged in 4 x 4 grid and described the pictures * Subject 2 selected appropriate card and put it in the same order

Answer 81

* Branigan et al 2000 * Coordination between speakers includes similar grammatical constructions * Syntactic Coordination * Syntactic Priming

Answer 82

The process where people use similar grammatical construction

Answer 83

Hearing a statement with Syntactic Detail increases the chance a sentence will be produced with the same construction

Answer 84

* Skills necessary for people to engage in effective conversation * Theory of Mind * Nonverbal Communication

Answer 85

Being able to understand what others feel, think or believe

Answer 86

* Interpreting and reacting to another person's gestures * This includes facial expressions, tone of voice and other cues to meaning

Answer 87

* Speaker provides both given and new information in a sentence * Providing given information facilitates comprehension

Answer 88

* Mutually recognised common knowledge * Speakers tailor information to the listeners level of knowledge * People work together to achieve common ground in a conversation

Answer 89

* Similar gramatical constructions in sentences during conversation * Speech patterns are influenced by grammatical constructions * We are influenced by each others grammatical constructions in conversations

Answer 90

* We determine what text means by using our knowledge * This allows us to reach beyond information that exists in the words and sentences

Answer 91

Information between different parts of the texts that can be inferred 1. Anaphoric 2. Instrument 3. Causal

Answer 92

We have a mental representation of what text is about

Answer 93

Two or more people talking with each other

Answer 94

Speaker should construct sentences with two kinds of information 1. Given Information 2. New Information

Answer 95

A process by which people use similar grammatical construction

Answer 96

1. Theory of Mind 2. Nonverbal Communication

Answer 97

* Knowing these helps Chinese Children to learn and remember meaning of Chinese characters * Semantic Radicals are not taught to people who are learning Chinese as a second language * This is because when learning Chinese you can get by by learning much less * Perhaps semantic radicals not useful for learning fundamental communication

Answer 98

* Taft & Chung 1999 * Dunlap, Perfetti, Liu & Wu in press * Found Adult learners can pick up semantic radical knowledge through implicit learning * Exposure to Chinese characters allows learners to learn meaning of semantic radicals * Explicit instruction in Semantic Radicals improved learning even more

Answer 99

* Adult learners generally benefit from explicit instruction - Dunlap et al 2011 * Semantic Radicals not usually taught to adults due to the many exceptions that exist * Adults given explicit instructions on semantic radicals seem to learn better * Indicates that when we know a rule, exceptions are easy to identify * Explicit instructions enhance learning despite initial confusion

Answer 100

* Non Linguistic Communication * Speech Illustrators and Esmojis * Personal Space * Emblems and Symbols - Cows in India & McDonalds M symbol * Gaze & eye contact * Connection of Language to Culture eg; Stolen Generation

Answer 101

* Language functions stimulate Cultural Identity * Eradication of Indigenous languages caused displacement; especially for the Stolen Generation * Slang is a form of group identification in youth culture * Latin in Law & Religion

Answer 102

* Language shapes the way we think * Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis * Structure of language affects the way speakers conceptualise the world * Research here has tended to be ambiguous

Answer 103

* Roberson et al 2004 * English has 11 basic colour terms & Himba has 5 * Very young children make similar mistakes * Colour names are learnt and not innate * Link between memory and language increases with language use

Answer 104

* Frank, Everett, Fedorenko & Gibson 2008 * Studied the Pirahã from Amazon - They have limited numerical system * They were able to perform exact matches with large numbers of items * Inaccurate on matching tasks that involved memory * NB. The Pirahã were very wary of outside influence

Answer 105

* Book not a paper 1957 * Skinner wanted to take a functional approach to how we use language * Valued reinforcement of verbal behaviour * Verbal behaviour was the ultimate expression of human evolution * Genetic, Cultural and Social Evolution all contribute to how we use and learn about language * Said Verbal Behaviour is how we use language to communicate * Language is the culture of language use like how sounds we make come out * The sentences and combinations we use are language

Answer 106

There has been much research but it has been difficult to note the difference between a mand and a tact in verbal behaviour