Week 9 Flashcards
What is Language
- Individual Words
- Combined to make sentences
- Words oftenhave more than one meaning
- Primary way people communicate
- Studying language teaches us how the mind operate
The Language System
- A system of communication
- Uses sounds or symbols
- Enables us to express Feelings, thoughts, ideas and experiences
Can Animals communicate or use language
- KOKO - Gorilla
- Alex the Parrot
- Bees – fly toward the sun – up fly away from sun down
- Length of dance indicates how long it takes to get there
- Even factor in wind speed
- Same in bees all over the world
- Bees can do the math
Human Language is Sophisticated
- Language far beyond fixed signals that communicate survival needs like “feed me” or “danger
- Allows us to arrange a sequence of signals to transmit messages from person to person
- Can be spoken, letters & writing, gestures & sign language
Language Structure
- We continually create new and unique sentences
- Structure that is:
- Hierarchical
- Governed by rules
- Hierarchical systems have small components to form larger units
- Rules have specific ways the small units can be arranged
Our Need to Communicate - One Community
- Goldin-Meadow 1982
- Deaf children in Peru invented their own sign language
- All humans develop language that follow complex grammar rules
Cross Cultural Language is Universal
- All humans develop language with complex rules
- There are more than 5000 different languages
- There is no culture without language
- Language development is similar across cultures
- Babbling at 7 mths, words around 12 mths and sentences at 2yrs in all languages
Language Learning Theorists
- BF Skinner 1957
- Noam Chomsky 1959
- MacCorquodale 1979
B.F. Skinner Verbal Behaviour
- Verbal behaviour is learned through reinforcement
- Includes:
- requesting
- labeling & classifying
- Generalisation & Discrimination
- Conversation is a combination of the above
- People reinforce each others verbal behaviour by talking to each other
Verbal Behaviour
- Skinner said children learn through reinforcement
- Also imitation and principles of conditioning
- They learn language the way they learn everything
Vocalisations
- Skinner said sounds that are reinforced are repeated
- Those not reinforced or punished disappear
- Includes - Mands, Tact, Echoic, Intraverbal
- Criticisms: Trial and error don’t account for:
- Fast mapping/speed of language acquisition
- generative aspect of language
- mistakes that are not imitated e.g “he goed away”
Mands
- A request for something wanted or needed
- Request to end something undesirable.
- One of the first forms of communication
- Naturally acquired,
- Observed as early as birth e.g. when baby cries for food or comfort
Tact
- A verbal behaviour under control by the environment (labeling)
- A verbal operant where a response of a word is evoked or strengthened by an object or event
- Tact is verbal contact with the physical world such as praise
Echoic
Verbal behaviour that is controlled by verbal stimulus
e.g. imitation
Intraverbal
A verbal behaviour that is controlled by other verbal behaviour
e.g. answering or responding
Syntactic Structures - The Book
- Noam Chomsky 1957
- Human language encoded in our genes
- The underlying basis of all language is similar with universal grammar
- Children produce sentences without having heard them before
- Sentences don’t need to be reinforced
- Children’s language is characterised by Poverty of Stimulus
Poverty of Stimulus - Chomsky 1957
- We are not exposed to enough linguistic environment to learn to talk from experience
- Language must be learned through syntactic rules
- Children learn these rules and apply them to new situations
- Many models of learning do not require an individual to experience each instances of a phrase to understand and use it
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
- Noam Chomsky said language is biological
- LAD is innate prewired mechanism for language development
- Grammar is built in and universal - allows us to learn any language in the world at birth
- Evidence:
- Studies of specific language impairment show that it is genetic and runs in families
- Unique physiology of mouth & throat and language brain areas
- Humans are prewired for language
- Critique - Does not explain how language is produced
- Difficult to falsify the claim of universal grammar
- Children are Actually reinforced and punished while learning language and making mistakes
- Some evidence children learn grammar probabilistically
Language Summary
- Language is the primary way humans communicate
- A system of communication uses sounds, symbols
- Expresses our thoughts, feelings, ideas and experiences
Skinner - Chomsky
- Skinner developed Verbal Behavior and said language was learned through reinforcement and imitation
- Chomsky said that grammar was universal and learning language was innate
POS - Chomsky
- Poverty of Stimulus
- Children are not exposed to enough language to learn by imitation
- Basic Behaviour principles do not cover the complex way language is put together
LAD
- Language Acquisition Device
- Humans have a pre-wired mechanism for language development
Psycholinguistics
Study of psychological processes where people acquire and process language
- Comprehension -how do people understand spoken and written language
- Speech Production - How do we produce it
- Representation - How is language represented in the brain
- Acquisition - How do we learn language
What is language?
- By adulthood people understand 50,000 different words
- Altmann 2001; Dell 1995
- Lexicon
- Phonology
- Orthography
- Semantics
Lexicon
- All the words a person understands
- Our Mental Dictionary
Phonology
Pronunciation of our words
Orthography
Written form of words
Semantics
The meaning of words in a language
Components of Words
- Phonemes
- Morphemes
Phoneme
- Shortest segment of speech that if changed changes the meaning of the word
- For example, “luck” consists of 3 phonemes, but only one morpheme.
Morphemes
- Smallest Unit of language with a definable meaning
- “Table” has two syllables, tabe ” and “ul,”
- Also consists of only a single morpheme, because the syllables alone have no meaning.
- “Psychology” has four syllables and two morphemes
Phonemic Restoration Effect
- Sometimes we miss parts of a sound
- Our Auditory senses have evoveled to deal with gaps
- We fill them in so we can perceive them as continuous
Perceiving Sounds and Letters
- Meaning influences our perception of sounds
- Warren 1970
-
“There was time to _ave”
- is the word shave, save, wave or rave?
-
“There was time to _ave” goodbye to our friends”
- Most people would hear Wave
Perceiving Individual Words in a Sentence
- Word perception is problematic because not everyone speaks the same
- How to say “Did you go to class today”
- Would you say “Did You” or “Dijoo”
- Pollack & Pickett 1964
- Words are harder to understand when taken out of context
- Even when subjects listen to their own voice!
Perceiving Words Without Spaces in a Sentence
- Speech is easier to understand when heard in a sentence
- Usually these words are not separated by any spaces
- We use Speech Segmentation for this
Speech Segmentation
We perceive individual words even though we don’t pause between words when we hear the sound signal
Perceiving Words
- In English some sounds are more likely to follow another
“Pretty: - Pre is likely to be followed by ty
Ty and Ba is likely to be separated into two different words
- The way we segment and categorise words is decided by frequency, context, statistical learning and our comprehension of meaning of words
Word Superiority Effect
Letters are easier to recognise when then are contained within a word
Not so much when they appear alone or are contained in a non word
Perceiving Language Theories (4)
- Phonemic Restoration
- Words Isolated from Conversation
- Speech Segmentation
- Word Superiority
Phonemic Resoration
- A Phoneme in a sentence can be perceived even if it obscured by noise
- Knowledge of meaning helps fill in the blanks
Words Isolated From Conversational Speech
- It is difficult to perceive isolated words
- Context provided by sentences helps perception of individual words
Speech Segmentation
- Individual words are perceived in spoken sentences
- We do not hear the spaces between words
- Letters are affected by their surroundings
Perceiving Written Words
- We can recognise individual words using perception
- This is different from understanding the meaning of those words
- Some words are more frequent in certain languages
- In English “home” occurs 547 x per million
- “Hike” occurs 4 x per million
Word Frequency Effect
- We respond faster to High Frequency words
- Rayner & Duffy 1986
- Studied Fixation & Gaze times
- Looked at eye movements of participants while they were reading
- Sentences constructed by changing single swords
- The slow waltz captured their attention (Low)
- The slow music captured their attention (High)
Rayner and Duffy (1986) - Word Frequency Effect
- Duration of fixation was 37ms longer for uncommon words
- Total gaze duration was 87ms longer for uncommon words
- Past experience will influence how quickly we access their meaning
Lexical Ambiguity
- Words often have multiple meanings
- How do we decide which meaning to use?
- River Bank
- Commonwealth Bank
Lexical Ambiguity - Lexical Decision Task
- Swinney 1979
- Within 400ms of hearing Bugs both Ant and Spy were primed
- After 700ms only Ant is primed
- Context clears up ambiguity and eliminates meanings that are not needed
- Swinney 1979 Listening Task
- Context clears up ambiguous meaning
- Priming supports decision making to decide which word to select
Lexical Priming Task
- Tanenhaus et al 1979
- Subjects heard sentences like:
- “She held the rose” (rose as a noun)
- “They all rose” (rose as a verb)
- Primed word by either using a noun or a verb
- Noun Prime - She held a rose –> flower
- Verb Prime - They all rose –> flower
- Priming effect is stronger for noun noun.
Both meaning are primed at 0 delay compared to control sentence, but after 200 ms only the noun prime remains.
Meaning Dominance
- Traxler 2012
- Many words have multiple meanings
- Not all meanings are created equal
- Meaning Dominance
- Biased Dominance
- Balanced Dominance
- Some words like CAST are equal in dominance
- Cast of the play
- Plaster Cast
Meaning Dominance Defined
Some word meanings occur more often than others
Biased Dominance
- Words have multiple meanings
- Some have high frequency and dominance
- Some have low frequency and dominance
Balanced Dominance
When words with multiple meanings have equal balance and the same dominance
Understanding Words
- Word Frequency
- Lexical Ambiguity
- Accessing word meanings is complicated and influenced by many factors
- Word frequency determines how long it takes to process meaning
- Context determines the meaning we access
- Correct context choice depends on word frequency, dominance and context
Define Psycholinguists (4)
- Study of the psychological process of acquiring and perceiving language
- CRAS -
- Comprehension
- Representation
- Acquisition
- Speech Production
Define Lexicon
- Includes: phonology, orthography and semantics
- Word components use phonemes and morphemes to construct them
Key Concepts in Perceiving Phonemes, Words or Letters
- Phonemic Restoration
- Words Isolated from Conversational Speech
- Word Superiority
Key Concepts in Understanding Words
- Word Frequency
- Lexical Ambiguity
Understanding Sentences
- Semantics is in the meaning of words in a language
- Syntax
- Parsing
Syntax
- Rules for combining words into sentences
- These sentences are a string of words in sequence
Parsing
- Mentally grouping words into phrases
- Helps listener create meaning
Brain Areas for Syntax and Semmantics
- Two famous neuropsychology studies
- Paul Broca 1861
- Carl Wernicke 1879
- Broca’s Area is connected to syntax and structure of sentences
- Wernicke’s Area connected to semantics and Understanding word meaning.
Brain Areas ERP for Syntax and Semantics
- (a) The N400 wave of the ERP is affected by the meaning of the word.
- N400 response is associated with structures in the temporal lobe.
- (b) The P600 wave of the ERP is affected by grammar.
- P600 response is associated with structures in the frontal lobe, more toward the front of the brain.
Parsing a Sentence
- After the musician played the piano …
a … she left the stage
b … she bowed to the audience
c … the crowd cheered cheerfully
d… was wheeled off of the stage
Parsing a Sentence - Garden Path Model
- Sentences seem to begin with one meaning but finish meaning something else
- Called Garden Path Sentences
- Only one syntactical structure guided by heuristics considered at first
- Rules allow us to make quick decisions
- Simplest syntactical structure is chosen
Principle of Late Closure
- Parser assumes new word is part of current phrase
- Semantics do not influence syntactic construction
- When syntactic structure is incompatible with semantic information initial structure is revised
Parsing - Constraint Based Approach
- Information in addition to syntax is used in processing sentences
- Context and Words used to predict how sentences should be parsed
- Word meanings influence this.
- Our knowledge of word meanings impact sentences
Sentence 2 is more difficult to figure out because there are two possible meanings
Constraint Based Approach (3)
- Influence of Word Meaning
- Influence of Story Context
- Visual World Paradigm
Influence of Story Context
- Context and words both used to predict how a sentence should be parsed
- Syntax is also used to process a sentence
- “The horse raced past the barn fell” is confusing without context.
Visual World Paradigm
- Tanenhaus 1995
- Sentence interpretation influenced by meanings of words
- Influenced by the meaning of a scene we are observing
- Subjects process information they see in a visual scene
Visual World Paradigm
“Place the apple on the towel in the box.”
- Interpretation 1:
- The relevant apple is the one on the towel.
- Interpretation 2:
- Move the apple onto the towel.
Tanenbaum tracked eye movements
Predictions Based on Knowledge of Language Constructions
Relative Clause vs Main Verb
Sentence [12] in the figure to the right occurs less frequently, so we
are more likely to read the sentences as if we were reading sentence [11] until they diverge in meaning.
Rules to Understand Sentence
- Semantics and Syntax affected by different brain areas
- Errors of semantics and syntax can generate ERPS
- Words in a sentence can affect processing of ambiguous sentences
- Temporary Ambiguity can be caused by expectations and can change with experience
Semantics and Syntax Brain Areas
- Semantics and Syntax processed by different areas
- Broca Frontal Lobe responsible for syntax
- Wernicke Temporal Lobe responsible for semantics
Semantics and Syntax - ERP
- Errors of Semantics and Syntax generate ERP
- These errors are processed differently in the brain
- Semantics produce N400 and Syntax produce P600 pulses on and ERP
Ambiguous Sentence
Semantics can affect sentence processing
e,g, The spy saw the man with binoculars
The spy saw the man, with binoculars
The spy saw, the man with binoculars
Visual World Paradigm
- Information in a visual scene can affect sentence processing
- Different scenes cause different sentence processing
- Visual context of a scene can affect sentence processes
Temporary Ambiguity
- Caused by expectations and can change with experience
- Uncommon sentence structure creates more ambiguity
- Effect decreases with experience
- Past experience with language affect sentence processing
Summary Rules and Meaning of Words
- Semantics is the meaning of words in a language.
- Syntax is the rules that make meaning of language
What is Parsing
Grouping parts of sentences to create meaning
Language Brain Areas
- Broca’s area linked to syntax and structure of sentences
- Wernicke’s Area linked to semantics and understanding meaning
ERP affecting language
- N400 wave affects meaning of a word in Temporal Lobe
- P600 wave affects grammar in Frontal Lobe
What is Garden Path Sentence
- Sentences appear to mean one thing at first but end up meaning something else
- Garden Path Model says we consider in syntactical structure at a time until the sentence no longer makes sense
Constraint Based Approach States
Information offered by syntax and semantics are considered simultaneously as we read or listen to words
Visual World Paradigm States
We process information about a sentence along with the context of how we see a visual field
Sentence Ambiguity States
- Uncommon sentence constructions create ambiguity
- This effect can be reduced with experience
Understanding Text and Stories
- Sentences are more than the sum of their words
- Stories are more than just the sum of their sentences
- Inferences determine what text means
- We use knowledge and experience to comprehend beyond the text
Text and Stories
- Bransford & Johnson 1973
- Subjects read passages and were tested to see what they could remember
- e.g. John was trying to fix the birdhouse. He was pounding the nail when his father came out to watch him and help him do the work.
- Subjects more likely to indicate they had seen the next passage:’
- John was using a hammer to fix the birdhouse when his father came out to watch him and help him do the work.
- They inferred that John was using a hammer from the information about the nail.
Making Inferences - Coherence
- The way a person presents text in their mind so that they relate one part of the text to the next.
- Inferences create connections essential to coherence in text
- Transformation of words, sentences and sequences of text into meaningful story
- Sometimes harder for less skilled readers or writers
How do we create Coherence? (CIA)
- Anaphoric Inferences
- Instrument Inferences
- Causal Inferences
Anaphoric Inferences
- Inferences that connect an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence.
“Riffifi , the famous poodle, won the dog show. She has now won the last three shows she has entered.”
Instrument Inferences
Inferences about Tools or Methods to produce stories
e.g. ”William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet while he was sitting at his desk.”
Causal Inferences
Inferences that events described on one sentence were caused by events in the previous sentence
e.g. Sharon took an aspirin. Her headache went away.
Mental Representation of Stories
- People use their knowledge to infer connections between different parts of stories
- Knowledge helps the process of Comprehension
- Consider the nature of Mental Representation we form when we read a story
Situation Model
A mental representation of what a text is about
We simulate perceptual and motor characteristics of objects and actions in a story.
Situation Model - Neural Evidence
- Olaf Hauk 2004
- Determined the link between movement, action words and brain activation using fMRI
- Activation more extensive for actual movements but reading the words happens in roughly the same part of the brain
Predictions Based on Situation Knowledge
- Metusalem et al. 2012
- Recorded subjects ERP as they read scenarios
“The band was very popular and Joe was sure the concert would be sold out. Amazingly, he was able to get a seat down in front. He couldn’t believe how close he was when he saw the group walk out onto the ( stage / guitar / barn ) and start playing.”
Situational Knowledge ERP
- Metusalem et al. 2012
- Recorded subjects ERP as they read expected/event related/event unrelated scenarios
- N400 becomes larger when the word does not fit the sentence
- Subjects knowledge of guitar connected to concerts produce smaller N400 than barn
Making Inferences
- Subjects infer meaning beyond sentence wording
- We can create Coherence using anaphoric, instrument and causal inferences
- Creative processes are based on past experience and help create Coherence
Link Between Action Words & Brain Activity
- Motor areas of the cortex activated by action words
- Reader’s responses to words include simulation of action
Prediction Based on Situational Knowledge
- Readers access most likely word fit and related words according to experience
- Experience with situations leads to Predictions
Language Production - Conversation
- Conversation is two or more people talking together
- Each person needs to take heed of what the others are saying
- Pickering & Garrod 2004
- Other people’s knowledge influences the topic being discussed
Given-New Contract
- Haviland & Clark 1974
- States that speaker should construct sentences that includes two kinds of information
- Given Information
- New Information
- Subjects took longer to comprehend two sentences when they didn’t follow this formula
Conversation - Common Ground
- Isaacs & Clark 1987
- Speakers mutual knowledge, beliefs and assumptions
- Paired up subjects who each had the same postcards of New York
- Subject 1 cards arranged in 4 x 4 grid and described the pictures
- Subject 2 selected appropriate card and put it in the same order
Conversation Coordination
- Branigan et al 2000
- Coordination between speakers includes similar grammatical constructions
- Syntactic Coordination
- Syntactic Priming
Syntactic Coordination
The process where people use similar grammatical construction
Syntactic Priming
Hearing a statement with Syntactic Detail increases the chance a sentence will be produced with the same construction
Skills for Conversation (2)
- Skills necessary for people to engage in effective conversation
- Theory of Mind
- Nonverbal Communication
Theory of Mind
Being able to understand what others feel, think or believe
Non-Verbal Conversation
- Interpreting and reacting to another person’s gestures
- This includes facial expressions, tone of voice and other cues to meaning
Given-New Contract
- Speaker provides both given and new information in a sentence
- Providing given information facilitates comprehension
Common Ground
- Mutually recognised common knowledge
- Speakers tailor information to the listeners level of knowledge
- People work together to achieve common ground in a conversation
Syntactic Coordination
- Similar gramatical constructions in sentences during conversation
- Speech patterns are influenced by grammatical constructions
- We are influenced by each others grammatical constructions in conversations
Comprehending Text
- We determine what text means by using our knowledge
- This allows us to reach beyond information that exists in the words and sentences
Coherence Relates to . . .
Information between different parts of the texts that can be inferred
- Anaphoric
- Instrument
- Causal
Situation Model States . . .
We have a mental representation of what text is about
Conversation is . . .
Two or more people talking with each other
Given-New Contract states . . .
Speaker should construct sentences with two kinds of information
- Given Information
- New Information
What is Syntactic Coordination
A process by which people use similar grammatical construction
Skills Necessary for Effective Conversation
- Theory of Mind
- Nonverbal Communication
Semantic Radicals
- Knowing these helps Chinese Children to learn and remember meaning of Chinese characters
- Semantic Radicals are not taught to people who are learning Chinese as a second language
- This is because when learning Chinese you can get by by learning much less
- Perhaps semantic radicals not useful for learning fundamental communication
Learning Semantic Radicals
- Taft & Chung 1999
- Dunlap, Perfetti, Liu & Wu in press
- Found Adult learners can pick up semantic radical knowledge through implicit learning
- Exposure to Chinese characters allows learners to learn meaning of semantic radicals
- Explicit instruction in Semantic Radicals improved learning even more
Second Language Learning
- Adult learners generally benefit from explicit instruction - Dunlap et al 2011
- Semantic Radicals not usually taught to adults due to the many exceptions that exist
- Adults given explicit instructions on semantic radicals seem to learn better
- Indicates that when we know a rule, exceptions are easy to identify
- Explicit instructions enhance learning despite initial confusion
Cultural Effects on Language
- Non Linguistic Communication
- Speech Illustrators and Esmojis
- Personal Space
- Emblems and Symbols - Cows in India & McDonalds M symbol
- Gaze & eye contact
- Connection of Language to Culture eg; Stolen Generation
Cultural Identity
- Language functions stimulate Cultural Identity
- Eradication of Indigenous languages caused displacement; especially for the Stolen Generation
- Slang is a form of group identification in youth culture
- Latin in Law & Religion
Linguistic Relativity
- Language shapes the way we think
- Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
- Structure of language affects the way speakers conceptualise the world
- Research here has tended to be ambiguous
Culture and Colour Names
- Roberson et al 2004
- English has 11 basic colour terms & Himba has 5
- Very young children make similar mistakes
- Colour names are learnt and not innate
- Link between memory and language increases with language use
Culture and Maths Ability
- Frank, Everett, Fedorenko & Gibson 2008
- Studied the Pirahã from Amazon - They have limited numerical system
- They were able to perform exact matches with large numbers of items
- Inaccurate on matching tasks that involved memory
- NB. The Pirahã were very wary of outside influence
Verbal Behaviour Text
- Book not a paper 1957
- Skinner wanted to take a functional approach to how we use language
- Valued reinforcement of verbal behaviour
- Verbal behaviour was the ultimate expression of human evolution
- Genetic, Cultural and Social Evolution all contribute to how we use and learn about language
- Said Verbal Behaviour is how we use language to communicate
- Language is the culture of language use like how sounds we make come out
- The sentences and combinations we use are language
Mand vs Tact
There has been much research but it has been difficult to note the difference between a mand and a tact in verbal behaviour
lecture 3
