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2112 - Foundational Cognition > Week 3 Slides > Flashcards

Week 3 Slides Flashcards

1
Q

Features of Attention

A
  • Our Sensory Systems are sensitive to very small energy
  • They are also flexible
  • Under optimum conditions we can detect a candle 30 miles away
  • Attention gives us the ability to focus on specific stimuli
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2
Q

Define Attention

A

Being able to focus on a specific stimuli or location in our environment

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3
Q

Define Attending

A
  • How much a stimulus affects behaviour can demonstrate how much attention we pay to it
  • Varied stimulus around a dimension (colour) and how we respond to that dimension
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4
Q

Lee, Hayes & Lovibond 2018

A
  • Trained people to associate a snack was available from a vending machine when a blueish green light was presented
  • People were shown 11 different colours and asked to say how sure they were a snack would arrive
  • People were sure at S6 but less sure the further away the colours were
    *
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5
Q

Drawbacks of Attending & Generalisation

A

Maladaptive Generalisation has been identified in clinical disorders

  • Panic Disorder (lissek et al. 2010)
  • PTSD (Grillon & Morgan, 1999; Morey et al.,)
  • Generalised Anxiety Disorder (Lissek et al. 2014)

All these condition relate to attention

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6
Q

Morey et al 2015

A
  • Used fear conditioning model to assess the generalisation of conditioned fear
  • Found PTSD patients misidentified S5 as the CS more often and remembered S5 more often
  • PTSD Symptom are more likely to be triggered by threat curs
  • These cues are very different to the original trauma
  • Resemblance and symbols can still be triggers
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7
Q

Mary Cover Jones

A
  • Used Little Albert case to develop the first behaviour therapies
  • Albert’s case shows that fears can generalise from the Initial event
  • Exposure Therapy Associative Learning appear helpful to treat Phobia and PTSD
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8
Q
A
  • Salience = Attention
  • CS is the key part of Associative Learning
  • If a person is not attending to CS there will be no learning
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9
Q

Two Theories about how Attention can Influence Salience

A
  • Mackintosh 1975 - Salience is higher when it accurately predicts US
  • Pearce-Hall 1980 - CS will be attended to more if the prediction of the US is uncertain
  • Very different to being a poor predictor
  • This is partial vs continuous reinforcement

These two theories may partly account for how the environment can capture our attention

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10
Q

Animal Attention to Stimuli

A
  • Animals attend to stimuli when the environment is less predictable
  • This helps avoid dangers and threats
  • Also helps discover new opportunities
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11
Q

Mackintosh 1975 vs Pearce-Hall 1980

A
  • Which theory is right?
  • Haselgrove et al., says both occur simultaneously
  • Showed when stimuli trained separately then brought together attention will be biased towards the unpredictable stimuli
  • When trained together attention is biased to the predictable stimuli
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12
Q

Summary of Attention

A
  • Attention is how well we focus on certain stimuli or locations in the environment
  • Generalisation Gradient tell us how we attend to stimulus
  • Maladaptive Generalisation is connected to clinical disorders like PTSD
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13
Q

Summary of Associative Learning

A
  • Attention being paid to the CS is measured by salience.
  • Mackintosh (1975) - Attention is paid to more predictable
    outcomes
  • Pearce Hall (1980) - Attention is paid to more unpredictable outcomes.
  • Both appear to occur simultaneously.
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14
Q

Selective Attention

A

The ability to focus on one message while ignoring others

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15
Q

Distraction

A

One Stimulus interfering with the process of another stimulus

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16
Q

Divided Attention

A

Paying attention to more than one thing at a time

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17
Q

Attentional Capture

A

A quick shift of attention usually caused by loud, sudden noise, bright light or event

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18
Q

Dichotic Listening Procedure

A
  • Presenting different stimuli to each ear
  • Participant attends to one message by copying it
  • Participants could not say what the information in the other ear was
  • Some stimulus was processed because they could identify change in gender and tone of the message
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19
Q

Cocktail Party Effect

A
  • Moray 1959
  • people could not detect a word repeated 35 times
  • But ⅓ people noticed when their name was used
  • This is bottom up selectivity to a single stimulus
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20
Q

The Attentional Filter

A
  • Is there a way to filter out information so we can only focus on information that is important
  • Early vs Late processing gives different predictions
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21
Q

Broadbent’s Filter Model

A

Early Selection Model has 4 Key Components

  1. Sensory Memory
  2. Filter
  3. Detector
  4. Short-term Memory
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22
Q

Broadbent’s Filter Model - Sensory Memory

A

Holds all incoming information for a fraction of a second the transfers it to the next stage: The Filter

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23
Q

Broadbent’s Filter Model - Filter

A

Identifies attended messages based on physical characteristics and only attended message is passed on to the next stage: Detector

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24
Q

Broadbent’s Filter Model - Detector

A

Processes all information to determine higher level characteristics of the message

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25
Q

Broadbent’s Filter Model - Short-term Memory

A

Receives output of detector. Holds information for 10-15 seconds and may transfer it to long-term memory

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26
Q
A
  • Attended message is separated from the incoming signal early in the analysis of the signal
  • It filters a message before incoming information is analyzed for meaning.
  • This would imply that incoming signals that are not of interest never make it to the analysis stage.
  • This explains the results from the basic dichotic listening procedure.
  • However, Broadbent’s filter model cannot account for the cocktail party effect
  • People do in fact process things that they do not attend
    to, such as their own name.
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27
Q

Criticism of Early Selection Model

A
  • Gray & Wedderburn’s (1960) Dear Aunt Jane experiment.
  • Participants can incorporate information from both streams if it makes more sense.
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28
Q

Attenuation Model of Selective Attention

A
  • Leaky Filter Model
  • Triesman `1964
  • Selection occurs in two stages
  1. Attenuator: - Mechanism that analyzes incoming message in terms of physical characteristics, language, and meaning.
  2. Dictionary Unit: Contains words, each of which has a threshold for being activated.
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29
Q
A
  • Leaky Filter Model
  • Triesman `1964
  • Selection occurs in two stages
  1. Attenuator: - Mechanism that analyzes incoming message in terms of physical characteristics, language, and meaning.
  2. Dictionary Unit: Contains words, each of which has a threshold for being activated.
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30
Q

Leaky Filter Graph

A
  • Shows thresholds that may exist for words
  • Own name has low threshold so is easily detected
  • Other words are higher because they are used less
  • They may also be less important to listener
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31
Q

Evidence against Leaky Filter Model

A
  • Mackay (1973)
  • Asked participants whether the meaning of the attended sentence was:
  1. ‘They were throwing stones at the side of the river’ or
  2. ‘They were throwing stones at the savings and loan association’
  • Moray (1969) paired electric shocks with words.
  • Participants showed galvanic skin response (GSR)
  • Indicates emotional arousal when these
    words were then presented to the unattended ear.
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32
Q

Late Selection Models

A
  • Deutsch & Deutsch 1963. 1967
  • Selection doesn’t happen until the full meaning is processed
  • All stimulus is analysed and important stimulus determine response
  • MacKay 1973 - Attended ear people heard ambiguous sentences and heard biased words
  • They saw two unambiguous sentences and chose the intended meaning of the message
  • Definition of the bias word affected people’s choice even when they were not aware of the word
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33
Q

Load Theory of Attention

A
  • Lavie 1995, 2000
  • How do people ignore distracting stimuli when trying to focus their attention
  • Process Capacity - How much information a person can handle in a moment
  • Perceptual Load - The difficulty of a given task
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34
Q

Load Theory of Attention - Processing Capacity

A

How much information a person can handle at any given moment.

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35
Q

Load Theory of Attention - Perceptual Load

A

The difficulty of a given task

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36
Q

Load Theory of Attention - Visual Search

A
  • Hard tasks result in longer reaction times
  • If task-irrelevant stimuli is introduced with easy tasks responses are slower than for hard tasks
  • Distraction is less likely for high load tasks because no capacity remains for the potential distracting stimulus
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37
Q

Drawbacks of Attentional Capture

A
  • Sometimes we can’t control if we get distracted or not
  • Stroop Effect demonstrates powerful task irrelevant stimulus can capture attention
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38
Q

Stroop Effect - Attentional Capture

A
  • Hard to read the name of the colour because the dimension colour is too distracting
  • Reading is automatic and you cannot avoid paying attention to both meanings of the word
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39
Q

Value-Driven Attentional Capture (VDAC)

A
  • Anderson, Laurent & Yantis 2011
  • Visual search for a target is slower in the when accompanied by a task-irrelevant item similar to a target that was rewarded earlier
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40
Q
A
  • Value Driven Attentional Capture
  • Anderson, Laurent & Yantis 2011
  • Visual search for a target is slower in the when accompanied by a task-irrelevant item similar to a target that was rewarded earlier
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41
Q

Anderson, Laurent & Yantis 2011

A
  • Value Driven Attentional Capture
  • Participants were significantly slower to respond to diamond when distractor was present
  • Responding disrupted by high reward distractors
  • Value of distractors learned in training was able to Capture Attention
  • Captured attention due to their Learned Reinforcement Value
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42
Q

Dichotic Listening Procedure

A
  • We can selectively attend to stimuli and ignore unattended stimuli
  • Cocktail Party Effect
  • Attention Filter
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43
Q

Broadbent Early Selection Model

A
  • Proposes 4 Key Components
  1. Sensory memory
  2. Filter
  3. Detector
  4. Short term memory
44
Q

Treisman’s Attenuation Model

A

Selection occurs in two stages

  1. Attenuator
  2. Dictionary Unit
45
Q

Early Prediction Models of Attention

A
  • Fail to account for results that show unattended stimuli are processed
  • Later models propose that Selection doesn’t occur until messages are processed enough to distinguish their importance
46
Q

Lavie’s Load Theory of Attenuation

A

Focuses on two Important Factors:

  1. Processing Capacity
  2. Perceptual Load
  • Attentional capture describes how attention can be manipulated by other stimuli in the environment
  • Stroop Effect shows how powerful task-irrelevant stimuli can capture attention
  • Value-driven attentional capture experiments show that reinforcement value can influence the extent to which a stimulus captures attention
47
Q

Visual Attention

A
  • Attention can be used to select between things we are interested in processing
  • There is a strong link between eye movements , attention and perception
48
Q

Determinants of Eye Movment

A
  • Bottom up and Top Down Processes
  1. Stimulus Salience
  2. Scene Schema
49
Q

Eye Movement - Bottom Up Processes

A
  • Stimulus Salience
  • Areas that stand out and capture attention
50
Q

Eye Movement - Top Down Processes

A
  • Scene Schema
  • Knowledge about what is contained in typical scenes
51
Q

Visual Attention and Task Focus

A
  • Eye movements are determined by the task at hand
  • Timing of when people look at specific places is determined by a sequence of actions involved in a task
52
Q

Covert Attention

A
  • Shifting attention without making eye movements
  • Visual attention can be sent to focus on different places in a scene with out eye movements
  • Evident in sports people
53
Q

Do we direct attention to Places or objects?

A
  • Posner 1980
  • Attentional Spotlight - “Everything within a small region of the visual field can be seen clearly, but it is much harder to see anything not falling within the attentional spotlight beam.”
  • Eriksen & St James 1986
  • Zoom Lens Model - “Attention directed to a given region
  • of the visual field; this area can increase or decrease with task demands.”*
54
Q

Do we direct attention to places or Objects?

A
  • Eriksen & St James 1986
  • Zoom Lens Model
55
Q

Attention to a Location

A
  • People respond faster to a target that is in the same place than at an unexpected location
  • Even when their eyes were fixed and did not move
56
Q

Criticism of Location Based Attention

A
  • Attention can be given to two figures that are in the same spatial location
  • Optical Illusions
57
Q

Attention to an Object

A
  • Egly et al. 1994
  • Participants saw tow side by side rectangles and a target cue.
  • Reaction time was fasted when target appeared in the cue space
  • Reaction time was faster when the target was in the same rectangle
  • Enhancing effect of attention spreads throughout the object
  • Same-Object Advantage
58
Q

Attention to Location or Object

A
  • Research is not conclusive
  • Mozer & Sitton 1998
  • Object-based selection operates either before or at the same time as location-based selection
59
Q

Can we attend to more than one thing at a time?

A
60
Q

Divided Attention

A
  • Schneider and Shiffrin 1977
  • Divide attention between remembering target and monitoring rapidly presented stimuli
  • Practice helps to simultaneously do two things that were difficult at first
61
Q

Automatic Processing - Divided Attention

A
  • Schneider & Schiffrin 1997
  • Arrow Indicates point when participants reported the task became automatic
  • Automatic Processing happens without intention
  • Only uses some of our cognitive resources
  • BUT! Only true for simple tasks
  • As difficulty increases our ability to attain automaticity decreases
62
Q

Learning to Divide Attention

A
  • Shahan & Podlesnik 2006
  • Matching to Sample - X was varied between 0.1 to 0.9
  • Relative Accuracy varied according to matching law
  • This means that the attention being given to either dimension in the sample depended on the relative probability of reinforcement.
63
Q

100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study

A
  • Dingus 2006
  • Studied Distracted Driving - Video recorders placed in 100 cars. Recorded 82 crashes and 771 near crashes in 2 million miles of driving.
  • 82% of crashes & 67% near crashes driver was inattentive in the 3 seconds prior.
  • Accident risk is 4X higher when using a cell phone.
64
Q

Distracted Driving

A
  • Strayer & Johnston 2001
  • Participants on phone missed twice as many red lights and took longer to apply brakes
  • Hands Free had the same result
  • Strayer et al. 2017
  • Using Google Now, Siri and Cortana for music, calls and texting still impairs performance
65
Q

Overt Attention

A
  • Shifting attention by making eye movements
  • Strong link between eye movement, attention and perception
66
Q

Stimulus Salience

A

Determined by bottom up eye movement

67
Q

Scene Schema

A

Determined by top down eye movement

68
Q

Covert Attention

A

Shifting attention without making eye movements

69
Q

Task Determination

A

Eye movements also determine by task focus

70
Q

Attention based on Location or Objects

A
  • There is evidence that we can direct our attention based on both factors
  • Practice can help people to simultaneously do two things at once.
  • Divided Attention depends on reinforcement associated with that stimulus
71
Q

What Stimuli determines Behaviour in Social Interactions

A
  1. Words
  2. Body Language
  3. Tone & Pitch of Voice
  4. Gestures
  5. Facial Expressions
  6. Environment Context
  7. Who you’re talking to
72
Q

Selective Stimulus Control

A
  • Stimulus Overselectivity
  • Occurs when only one, or a small subset of, stimuli
    controls behaviour
73
Q

Restricted Stimulus Control

A
  • Stimulus Overselectivity
  • Occurs when only one, or a small subset of, stimuli
    controls behaviour
74
Q

Stimulus Overselectivity

A

Occurs when only one, or a small subset of, stimuli
controls behaviour

75
Q

Lovas et al 1971

A

Stimulus Overselectivity is prevalent in individuals with autism spectrum disorder

76
Q

Rincover and Koegal 1975

A
  • Overselectivity leads to difficulties with acquisition, maintenance and generalisation
77
Q

Implications of Stimulus Overselectivity

A
  • Poses a challenge for behavioural interventions
  • Particularly prominent in people with clinical disorders
  • Can underpin deficits in developmental domains such as:
  1. Social
  2. Language (reading, writing, verbal
  3. Academic
  4. Emotional
78
Q

Factors that Impact Overselectivity

A
  • Individuals with ASD are more likely to display this behaviour
  • Stimulus Salience
  • Reinforcement History
79
Q

Stimulus Salience - Leader et al. 2009

A
  • Tested children with and without ASD
  • Compound stimuli comprised of two coloured circles side by side
  • Varied Salience and Saturation of Stimuli
80
Q

Stimulus Salience Results - Leader et al. 2009

A
  • Overall ASD Children had weaker salience
  • Large difference in control for ASD Kids in unequal salience condition
  • differences were similar across groups with ASD Kids more likely to overselect
  • Stimulus that is more salient are more likely to gain control
81
Q

Reinforcement History

A
  • Dube & McIlvane 1997
  • 3 individuals with developmental disabilities
  • Delayed Matching to Sample (DTMS) procedure in which participants matched one element of a compound sample
  • Each element was associated with a high or low reinforcer rate prior to DMTS Training
  • More accurate performance with elements previously associated with a higher reinforcer rate
82
Q

Two Theories on why Overselectivity occurs

A
  • Attention-Deficit Theories
  • Comparator Performance Theories
83
Q

Attention-Deficit Theories

A
  • Dube 2009; Dube & McIlvane 1999; Lovaas et al. 1971
  • Subjects do not observe or attend to stimuli during training
  • As a result the stimuli does not control behaviour
84
Q

Comparator Performance Theories

A
  • Reed 2011; Reed et al 299, 2012; Reynolds & Reed 2018
  • People can attend and learn about all stimuli
  • Learning is not expressed in behaviour
  • A Comparator Mechanism compares stimuli when it happens
  • Mechanism selects most appropriate stimulus to control stimuli
85
Q

Evidence for Attention-Deficit Theories

A
  • Dube et al. 2010
  • 4 neurotypical adults, 10 individuals with intellectual disability
  • Used eye-tracking technology to measure observing
  • Reinforcers were tokens
86
Q

Evidence for Attention-Deficit Theories - Results

A
  • 6 participants with ID had medium accuracy which indicates stimulus overselectivity
  • Suggests failure to observe or attend may underlie overselectivity
  • When wrong were very wrong, when correct were very correct
87
Q

Evidence for Comparator Learning Theories

A
  • Reed et al 2012
  • Attention is paid to all stimuli but only some control behaviour
  • Overselected stimuli extinguished after learning
  • Can lead to revaluation of the underselected stimuli
  • Attending must have occurred at some stage for revaluation to occur
  • Perhaps control of the underselected stimulus emerges because of changes in relative reinforcer rates (Shahan & Podlesnik, 2006)?
88
Q

Stimulus Overselectively can negatively impact Behaviour

A
  • This is because underselected stimulus are not learned without attention
  • Poses a challenge for behaviour interventions
89
Q

Overselectivity is high in people with Autism Spectrum Disorder

A
  • Is affected by variables such as Salience and Reinforcement History
90
Q

Reinforcement History

A

A consequence that follows an operant response that increases the likelihood of that response occurring in the future.

91
Q

Summary so far:

A
  • Overselectivity may occur because subjects fail to attend to all of the relevant stimuli, or because only some of the stimuli are imbued with reinforcement value.
  • Interventions targeting attention and observing appear to reduce or prevent overselectivity
  • Stimulus overselectivity is just one example of why it is important to understand what controls attention.
92
Q

Inattentional Blindness

A
  • Stimulus that is not attended to is not perceived
  • Even when we might be looking straight at it
93
Q

Change Blindness

A
  • If shown two versions of a picture, Differences are not apparent
  • People say they “would” have detected the change
94
Q

Change Blindness in a Naturalistic Setting

A
  • Simons & Levin’s 1998 were the first to demonstrate change blindness in the lab
  • 50% of participants could not detect change
  • More likely to notice change if they were in the same age group
  • Performance dropped when they changed experimenter to a young construction worker
  • Suggests group in/out bias
95
Q

Binding

A
  • Features like colour, form, motion combine to create our perception of a coherent object
  • Binding allows integration of different kinds of information related to one thing.
96
Q

Treisman’s Feature Integration Theory

A
  • Preattentive stage is automatic and needs no effort
  • People are unaware it’s happening
  • Object is perceived into features during the Focused Attention Stage

Object ⇒ Preattentive Stage (analyse) ⇒ Focused Attention (perception) Stage ⇒ Perception

97
Q
A
  • Treisman’s Feature Integration Theory
  • Preattentive stage is automatic and needs no effort
  • People are unaware it’s happening
  • Object is perceived into features during the Focused Attention Stage
98
Q

Treisman & Schmidt 1982 Experiment

A
  • Subjects report combination features from different stimuli
  • May report a red circle but there is no red circle
  • These are called Illusory Conjunction
  • These happen because features are “free floating”
99
Q

Illusory Conjunction

A

Mistakenly perceiving features of one stimulus as belonging to another nearby stimulus.

100
Q

Feature Integration Theory

A
  • Attention is the “Perceptual Glue”
  • Features are combined in the Focused Attention Stage
  • People correctly pair shapes and colours when they are told to ignore black numbers and focus on objects
101
Q

Failure to Bind

A
  • RM was patient with Balint’s Syndrome
  • People with Balint’s syndrome have an inability to focus attention on individual objects.
  • RM had a high number of illusory conjunctions reported.
  • This is a problem in the Focused Attention Stage of Feature Integration theory
102
Q

Balint’s Syndrome

A
  • People with Balint’s syndrome have an inability to focus attention on individual objects.
  • Cannot find target when there is a conjunction present
  • Can find targets with only one target required
103
Q

Types of Searches - Feature Integration Theory

A
  • Feature Search - Looking for a single feature e.g. horizontal line
  • Conjunction Search - Looking for two or more features in combination
104
Q

What does Inattentional Blindness refer to?

A
  • Observation that stimulus is not attended to is not perceived
  • This even happens when people look straight at it
105
Q

What is Change Blindness?

A

If we are shown two versions of a scenario we do not immediately perceive differences if we are not focusing on the changes

106
Q

What is Binding?

A

Process an object by it’s features in combination to correctly perceive a coherent object

107
Q

Summarise Treisman’s Feature Integration Theory?

A
  • Objects are analysed into free floating features in preattentive stage
  • Features are combined into coherent perception in the focused attention stage
  • People with Balint’s Syndrome have difficulty combining features
  • This is because of trouble in the focused attention stage
  • May result in high number of illusory conjunctions

2112 - Foundational Cognition (19 decks)

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