Week 10 Flashcards

Question

Multiple Checkerboard Problem

Answer 1

* Kaplan & Simon 1990 * Participants in the Bread & Butter group were twice as fast * Also only needed one hint on average * Other groups were in between * Problem solving is easier whe information helps to correctly present the problem.

Answer 2

* Kaplan & Simon 1990 - Mutilated Checkerboard * Subjects asked to think out loud while they were solving the problem * Subjects solved the problem faster when they realised the Bread/Butter word sequence was key to solving the problem * This is similar to Gestalt Restructuring

Answer 3

* An obstacle between current state and end goal * The method of clearing obstacles is not clear at first * Can be difficult

Answer 4

* The Gestalt approach to solve problems by representing them in the mind

Answer 5

The sudden realisation of the solution to a problem

Answer 6

* Functional Fixedness * Mental Set

Answer 7

* Define the Problem State * Define the initial state, intermediate state & goal state * Means End Analysis * Create Sub Goals

Answer 8

Reduce differences between Initial and Goal States

Answer 9

Brings intermediate states closer to the goal

Answer 10

1. Analogical Problem Solving 2. Analogical Transfer 3. Target Problem 4. Source Problem

Answer 11

Using a solution to a similar problem directs the solution to a new problem

Answer 12

Transfer from one problem to another

Answer 13

Problem the subject is trying to solve

Answer 14

* A problem that is similar to the target problem * Illustrates a way to solve the target problem

Answer 15

* Dunker's Radiation Problem 1945 * When first done subjects could not solve it * Gick & Holyoad 1980; 1983 found only 10% subjects could find the solution

Answer 16

* Gick & Holyoak 1980; 1983 * Subjects read the Fortress Story * Then aske to solve Radiation Problem * 30% subjects could solve the problem * Even after reading an analogous problem most people could not solve it. * When hinted to think of the story success rate doubled to 75%

Answer 17

Gick & Holyoak 1. Noticing the relationship between source problem and target problem 2. Mapping corresponding features between source problem and target problem 3. Applying mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem

Answer 18

* Process where two problems are compared to find similarities between them * Gentner & Goldin-Meadow 2003 * Compared two cases to illustrate a principle: * Trade of Strategy - Two sisters fight over an orange * Contingency Strategy - Author negotiating royalties for a book * Afterwards subjects given two conditions * Trade off Solutions * Contingency Solutions * Given new problem that could use either solution * Subjects Used the strategy they had been primed with 1.

Answer 19

“A person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that field.” * Experts solve problems in their field more quickly and with a higher success rate than beginners. * Experts possess more knowledge about their fields.

Answer 20

* Chase & Simon 1973a; 1973b * Compared Chess Masters and Beginners to recreate Chess Board Piece Positions * Showed experts excelled when pieces matched a real chess game * No better when pieces were random * Real scenarios allowed Experts to use Chunking to allow greater memory recall

Answer 21

* Chi et al 1982; 1983 * Asked Experts & Novices to group physics problems based on their similarities * Novices used surface features such as similar looking objects * Experts used structural features such as general physics principles

Answer 22

* Experts spend more time analysing problems * Spend time understanding problem before trying to solve it (Lesgold 1988) * No better at problems outside their area of expertise than novices * Sometimes being an expert causes inflexible thinking * Problems that involve rejecting usual procedure might not be used by an expert

Answer 23

* Using a solution to a similar problem to guide solutions to a new problem * Analogical Transfer

Answer 24

Use the solution to a source problem to solve your target problem

Answer 25

* Possess more knowledge about their field. * Experts’ knowledge is organised differently than novices’ * Experts spend more time analyzing and understanding problems. * No better than novices at solving problems outside their expertise

Answer 26

* Animals can problem solve and create novel solutions * Kohler's Chimpanzees * Epstein's Pigeons 1981 * New Caledonian Crow

Answer 27

* Tends to focus on divergent thinking * open ended and involving large number of potential solutions * Kaufman 2009 said solutions must be original AND useful * But what about art?

Answer 28

* Many inventions involve analogical thinking * Observation of phenomenon applied to new problem * This is found in many famous inventions * Creative Problem Solving requires an Idea * Also the work involved to develop the idea * Turns into a practical Solution

Answer 29

* Basadure et al 2000 * Problem solving is a four stage process * Starts by generating a problem and ending with a solution * Each stage has multiple steps * Recognising the problem is an important first step

Answer 30

* Too much knowledge can hinder creativity * Smith et al 1993 * Giving examples can influence the nature of solutions * Subjects asked to invent, sketch an label new and creative toys/new life forms * One group a shown three examples - life forms with antenna, four legs and a tail * This group more likely to use features that were primed

Answer 31

Preinventive forms: Ideas that precede creation of a finished product People were more creative for preinventive objects when they created them themselves Even without told not to consider the uses of the forms as they invented them Similar to generation effect in memory retreival

Answer 32

* Gee & Snyder 2012 * Draw 4 straight lines that pass through all nine dots. * According to Gestalt principles, we see stimuli as a whole rather than the sum of its parts. * Deactivating anterior temporal lobe helped people solve this problem * ATL associated with grouping objects into meaningful patterns

Answer 33

1. Imaginative Play 2. Passion 3. Daydreaming 4. Solitude 5. Intuition 6. Openness to Experience 7. Mindfulness 8. Sensitivity 9. Turning Adversity into Advantage 10. Thinking Differently

Answer 34

Basic Reinforcement principles result in repetition So . . . Creativity is beyond basic learning principles

Answer 35

* Variability is a Selective Advantage * Unpredictable animals succeed at catching prey and are better at avoiding predators * Animals that look different to other species more likely to find a mate * Variability is a continuum ranging from random to repetetive * Can variability be learned

Answer 36

* Page & Neuringer 1985 * Reinforced Pigeons for varying sequences of Left/Right pecks across two keys * An 8 peck sequence different from the previous one would be rewarded * Pigeons produced about 50 different pattern variations

Answer 37

* Neuringer 1986 * Students asked to type random 1 and 2 on keyboard * No feedback for 6000 responses * Patterns produced easily noticed from random and students tended to repeat patterns * With feedback students produced totally random numbers

Answer 38

* Tend to focus on divergent thinking * Creativity is open ended * Involves large number of potential solutions

Answer 39

Observation of a phenomena can be applied to a new problem

Answer 40

* People come up with creative preinventive objects better when the create their own * Even when told not to consider objects uses before they created them

Answer 41

Humans and Animals can produce variable behaviour when given feedback

Answer 42

* Repetition is not trial and error * In Thorndike's Hungry Cat Box the cat's behaviour was random * Did not start out to solve a problem thus requiring new behaviours for the solution

Answer 43

* Rats do not need to fix a broken train so it is not a good problem example * Cats don't usually need to escape a box to reach food * Humans may need trains and escape routes so these are appropriate problems for humans

Answer 44

* Basadur et al 2000 * Stage 1 - Problem Generation * Stage 2 - Problem Formulation * Stage 3 - Problem Solving * Stage 4 - Solution Implementation

Answer 45

* Problem Generation 1. Problem Finding 2. Fact Finding

Answer 46

* Problem Formulation * 3) Problem Definition * 4) Idea Finding

Answer 47

* Problem Solving * 5) Evaluation and Selection * 6) Planning

Answer 48

* Solution Implementation * 7) Selling Idea * 8) Taking Action

Answer 49

* Analysing a Problem in different ways * Changes from one perspective to another Representation * Result helps to arrive at a new understanding of a problem.