Week 10 Flashcards
What is a Problem?
- An obstacle between the present and a goal
- Solution is Not immediately obvious
- When you need to accomplish something but the solution is not easy or simple
Define Problem – Thorndike 1898
- Placed hungry cats in a box
- Lever inside opened the cage
- Cats learned to pull the lever by trying random behaviour
- They slowly learned through trial and error
- Is this REAL problem solving
The Gestalt Approach
- Representing a Problem in the mind
- Restructuring
- Changes the way a problem is represented
Represent Problem in the Mind
- There are many ways to solve a problem
- This means it can be represented in the mind in many ways
Gestalt - The Circle Problem
- The success in solving a problem is found in the way we view the problem in the mind
Gestalt Insight
A sudden realisation of a problem’s solution
Often requires restructuring
Insight - Metcalfe & Weibe 1987
Subjects solved insight and non-insight problems
Non insight problems were algebra problems
Warmth judgments - Guessing how close they were to solving the problem every 15 seconds
Functional Fixedness
Restricting use of an object to its familiar functions
Maier’s (1931) Two-String Problem
Functional Fixedness - Candle Problem
- Dunker 1945; Adamson 1952
- Subjects more likely to use matchbox as support if it was presented empty
- Seeing boxes as containers stopped subjects using them as support
Gestalt Problem Solving Obstacles
-
Functional Fixedness
- Candle Problem
-
Mental Set
- Water Jug Problem
Functional Fixedness
Restricting use of an object to its familiar functions
Mental Set
- A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem
- Based on past experiences with similar problems
Water Jug
- Subjects given solution to Problems as B-A-2C
- Some problems had simple solution, some had hard
- Only 23% of participants used the simple solution
- Given mental set inhibited subjects from using simpler solution
The Information Approach (6)
- Newell & Simon
- Problem Space
- Initial State
- Interemediate States
- Goal State
- Mens-End Analysis
- Sub-Goals
Problem Space
All possible states that could occur when solving a problem
Initial State
Conditions at the beginning of the problem
Intermediate States
Conditions after each step is made towards solving a problem
Goal State
The Solution of the Problem
Means-End Analysis
Reduce differences between inital and goal state
Sub-Goals
Create intermediate states closer to the goal
The Information Approach
- Newell & Simon 1972
- Saw problems in terms of initial state
- The beginning of a problem with a goal state as the solution
- Uses Operators
- Actions that take problem from one state to another
The Problem Space
- Problem solving is a sequence of choices
- Each action creates an intermediate state
- I starts at an initial state then progresses through intermediate stages
- Finally reaches the goal state
Means-End Analysis
- To solve a problem we need to search the problem space for a solution
- Try to reduce the difference between the initial state and the goal state
- Achieved by creating sub-goals and intermediate goals in between
How a Problem is Stated
- The way a problem is presented affects its difficulty
- Kaplan & Simon 1990
- Hypothesis that versions of Mutilated Checkered Problem could help subjects to solve the problem
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Multiple Checkerboard Problem
- Kaplan & Simon 1990
- Participants in the Bread & Butter group were twice as fast
- Also only needed one hint on average
- Other groups were in between
- Problem solving is easier whe information helps to correctly present the problem.
Think Aloud Protocol
- Kaplan & Simon 1990 - Mutilated Checkerboard
- Subjects asked to think out loud while they were solving the problem
- Subjects solved the problem faster when they realised the Bread/Butter word sequence was key to solving the problem
- This is similar to Gestalt Restructuring
Problem Summary
- An obstacle between current state and end goal
- The method of clearing obstacles is not clear at first
- Can be difficult
Restructuring
- The Gestalt approach to solve problems by representing them in the mind
Insight
The sudden realisation of the solution to a problem
Problem Solving Obstacles
- Functional Fixedness
- Mental Set
Newell & Simon Approach
- Define the Problem State
- Define the initial state, intermediate state & goal state
- Means End Analysis
- Create Sub Goals
Means-End Analysis will . . .
Reduce differences between Initial and Goal States
Create Sub-Goals will . . .
Brings intermediate states closer to the goal
Steps to Using Analogies to Solve Problems (4)
- Analogical Problem Solving
- Analogical Transfer
- Target Problem
- Source Problem
Analogical Problem Solving
Using a solution to a similar problem directs the solution to a new problem
Analogical Transfer
Transfer from one problem to another
Target Problem
Problem the subject is trying to solve
Source Problem
- A problem that is similar to the target problem
- Illustrates a way to solve the target problem
Dunker 1945 - Analogies to Solve Problems
- Dunker’s Radiation Problem 1945
- When first done subjects could not solve it
- Gick & Holyoad 1980; 1983 found only 10% subjects could find the solution
Radiation Problem & Fortress Story
- Gick & Holyoak 1980; 1983
- Subjects read the Fortress Story
- Then aske to solve Radiation Problem
- 30% subjects could solve the problem
- Even after reading an analogous problem most people could not solve it.
- When hinted to think of the story success rate doubled to 75%
Three Steps to Analogical Problem Solving
Gick & Holyoak
- Noticing the relationship between source problem and target problem
- Mapping corresponding features between source problem and target problem
- Applying mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem
Analogical Encoding
- Process where two problems are compared to find similarities between them
- Gentner & Goldin-Meadow 2003
- Compared two cases to illustrate a principle:
- Trade of Strategy - Two sisters fight over an orange
- Contingency Strategy - Author negotiating royalties for a book
- Afterwards subjects given two conditions
- Trade off Solutions
- Contingency Solutions
- Given new problem that could use either solution
- Subjects Used the strategy they had been primed with
1.
Define Expert
“A person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that field.”
- Experts solve problems in their field more quickly and with a higher success rate than beginners.
- Experts possess more knowledge about their fields.
Experts - Problem Solving
- Chase & Simon 1973a; 1973b
- Compared Chess Masters and Beginners to recreate Chess Board Piece Positions
- Showed experts excelled when pieces matched a real chess game
- No better when pieces were random
- Real scenarios allowed Experts to use Chunking to allow greater memory recall
Experts vs Novices - Organising Knowledge
- Chi et al 1982; 1983
- Asked Experts & Novices to group physics problems based on their similarities
- Novices used surface features such as similar looking objects
- Experts used structural features such as general physics principles
Analysing Problems
- Experts spend more time analysing problems
- Spend time understanding problem before trying to solve it (Lesgold 1988)
- No better at problems outside their area of expertise than novices
- Sometimes being an expert causes inflexible thinking
- Problems that involve rejecting usual procedure might not be used by an expert
Summary Analogical Problem Solving
- Using a solution to a similar problem to guide solutions to a new problem
- Analogical Transfer
Analogical Transfer
Use the solution to a source problem to solve your target problem
What is an Expert?
- Possess more knowledge about their field.
- Experts’ knowledge is organised differently than novices’
- Experts spend more time analyzing and understanding problems.
- No better than novices at solving problems outside their expertise
Non Human Problem Solving
- Animals can problem solve and create novel solutions
- Kohler’s Chimpanzees
- Epstein’s Pigeons 1981
- New Caledonian Crow
What is Creativity?
- Tends to focus on divergent thinking
- open ended and involving large number of potential solutions
- Kaufman 2009 said solutions must be original AND useful
- But what about art?
Practical - Creativity
- Many inventions involve analogical thinking
- Observation of phenomenon applied to new problem
- This is found in many famous inventions
- Creative Problem Solving requires an Idea
- Also the work involved to develop the idea
- Turns into a practical Solution
Creative Problem Solving
- Basadure et al 2000
- Problem solving is a four stage process
- Starts by generating a problem and ending with a solution
- Each stage has multiple steps
- Recognising the problem is an important first step
Generating Ideas
- Too much knowledge can hinder creativity
- Smith et al 1993
- Giving examples can influence the nature of solutions
- Subjects asked to invent, sketch an label new and creative toys/new life forms
- One group a shown three examples - life forms with antenna, four legs and a tail
- This group more likely to use features that were primed
Generating Ideas - Fink 1995
Preinventive forms: Ideas that precede creation of a finished product
People were more creative for preinventive objects when they created them themselves
Even without told not to consider the uses of the forms as they invented them
Similar to generation effect in memory retreival
Gestalt Whole Stimuli
- Gee & Snyder 2012
- Draw 4 straight lines that pass through
all nine dots. - According to Gestalt principles, we see stimuli as a whole rather than the sum of its parts.
- Deactivating anterior temporal lobe helped people solve this problem
- ATL associated with grouping objects into meaningful patterns
10 Things that Highly Creative People Do Differently
- Imaginative Play
- Passion
- Daydreaming
- Solitude
- Intuition
- Openness to Experience
- Mindfulness
- Sensitivity
- Turning Adversity into Advantage
- Thinking Differently
Creative Animals
Basic Reinforcement principles result in repetition
So . . . Creativity is beyond basic learning principles
Variability
- Variability is a Selective Advantage
- Unpredictable animals succeed at catching prey and are better at avoiding predators
- Animals that look different to other species more likely to find a mate
- Variability is a continuum ranging from random to repetetive
- Can variability be learned
Reinforcing Creativity
- Page & Neuringer 1985
- Reinforced Pigeons for varying sequences of Left/Right pecks across two keys
- An 8 peck sequence different from the previous one would be rewarded
- Pigeons produced about 50 different pattern variations
Reinforcing Creativity - Feedback
- Neuringer 1986
- Students asked to type random 1 and 2 on keyboard
- No feedback for 6000 responses
- Patterns produced easily noticed from random and students tended to repeat patterns
- With feedback students produced totally random numbers
Describe Creativity
- Tend to focus on divergent thinking
- Creativity is open ended
- Involves large number of potential solutions
Many inventions involve analogical problem solving
Observation of a phenomena can be applied to a new problem
Having too much knowledge can hinder creativity
- People come up with creative preinventive objects better when the create their own
- Even when told not to consider objects uses before they created them
Feedback
Humans and Animals can produce variable behaviour when given feedback
Non Human Repetition
- Repetition is not trial and error
- In Thorndike’s Hungry Cat Box the cat’s behaviour was random
- Did not start out to solve a problem thus requiring new behaviours for the solution
To define a Problem we need to define what the Essence of a problem is
- Rats do not need to fix a broken train so it is not a good problem example
- Cats don’t usually need to escape a box to reach food
- Humans may need trains and escape routes so these are appropriate problems for humans
Four Stage Problem Solving Process
- Basadur et al 2000
- Stage 1 - Problem Generation
- Stage 2 - Problem Formulation
- Stage 3 - Problem Solving
- Stage 4 - Solution Implementation
Basadur Stage 1
- Problem Generation
- Problem Finding
- Fact Finding
Basadur Stage 2
- Problem Formulation
- 3) Problem Definition
- 4) Idea Finding
Basadur Stage 3
- Problem Solving
- 5) Evaluation and Selection
- 6) Planning
Basadur Stage 4
- Solution Implementation
- 7) Selling Idea
- 8) Taking Action
Gestalt Restructuring
- Analysing a Problem in different ways
- Changes from one perspective to another Representation
- Result helps to arrive at a new understanding of a problem.
