Week 4 Slides Flashcards
1
Q
What is Memory?
A
- Encoding
- Retaining
- Retreiving
Using Information about:
- Stimuli
- Images
- Events
- Ideas
- Skills
After the original information is no longer present
Any time something in the past impacts your thinking or behaviour in the future
2
Q
Remember Ebbinghaus 1885
A
How quickly is information lost over time
3
Q
Short-term Memory
A
- Learning or recall everything was in the STM once
- Continuously being refreshed
4
Q
What is Remembering
A
- What experiences are remembered?
- How is this experience stored
- How is it retrieved once storied
5
Q
Memory is Hypothetical
A
Memory Processes and Structures can be inferred
6
Q
Grant 1976
A
- Found that when samples are presented for longer peoples performance would be more accurate
- Proposed that sample leaves neurological trace
- Trace decays over time
- % correct represents the strength of the trace
- Downward slope of accuracy indicates decay
- Traces were parallels so strength and decay were independent of each other
7
Q
Define Memory
A
- Memory is the process involved in encoding, retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present.
8
Q
Can Memory be a Process?
A
- A process that is being used when the past impacts how we think or behave in the future
- Short-term Memory has limited capacity
*
9
Q
Delayed Matching to Sample procedure
A
- Used to measure memory
- Participant is shown a sample stimulus
- After a X time, a pair of test stimuli is shown
- Select the test stimulus that matches the earlier sample stimulus.
10
Q
Trace Decay
A
- Visual stimulus leaves a trace
- Trace decays over time
- Decay rate is constant
- Decay is not dependent of the strength of trace
- Trace can be messed with
11
Q
Modal Model of Memory
A
- Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968
- Sensory Memoery
- Short-term memory
- Long-term Memory
- Rehearsal
- Output
12
Q
Called Modal Model because . . .
A
Contains features of many memory models taht were being proposed in the 60’s
13
Q
Control Processes
A
- A process that can be controlled by someone
- Rehearsal
- Strategies of attention
14
Q
What Control Processes work Best?
A
- Atkinson & Shiffrin 1977 - Proposed that rehearsal improves memory
- Craik & Lockhart 1972 - Proposed Levels of Processing Theory
It’s not the amount of processing but the quality of processing that results in best memory retention
15
Q
Levels of Processing Theory
A
- Craik & Lockhart 1972
- Quality and depth of encoding is more important for long term memory than rehearsal
16
Q
Persistence of Vision
A
- Continuing to see a stimulus even after it has disappeared
- The effects of sensory stimulation that are retained for a brief time
17
Q
Sperling 1960
A
- Measuring capacity and duration of Sensory Memory
- Letter array flashed for 50ms
- Participants asked to report as many as possible
- Whole Report Method
- Partial Report Method
- Delayed Partial Report Method
18
Q
Whole Report Method
A
- Sperling 1960
- Array flashed for 50ms asked to report as many as possible
- Average 4.5/12 reported
19
Q
Partial Report Method
A
- Sperling 1960
- Heard tone after matrix presented
- Each sound told them what row to report
- Able to report 3.3/4 on average from any row
20
Q
Delayed Report Method
A
- Sperling 1960
- Presentation of tone delayed by one second after visual stimulus shown
- Performance decreased rapidly
- Average 1/4 letters reported
21
Q
Results Sperling 1960
A
- Decrease in recall due to rapid decay of Iconic Memory
- Visual Stimulus hits our visual receptors and is stored in the STM
- This stimulus decays decays rapidly in under a second
22
Q
Iconic Memory
A
- Brief sensory memory of things we see
- Responsible for Persistence Vision
- Corresponds to Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Modal Model of Memory
23
Q
Echoic Memory
A
- Similar to measuring capacity of visual stimulus measures auditory stimulus
- Sounds also persist in the mind
- This is called Echoic Memory
24
Q
Echoic Memory
A
- Brief Sensory memory of things we hear
- Responsible for Persistence of Sound
- Echoic Memory lasts for a few seconds
- Darwin et al 1972
25
Recall
* Reporting stimulus after a delay of presentation of the stimulus
* Can be measured as a percentage
* Can be visual and auditory
26
Peterson & Peterson 1959
* Read 3 letters then 3 numbers
* Count backwards by 3's
* after delay recall 3 letters
* After 3 second delay people had 80% recall and after 18 seconds had 10%
* Reduced performance due to decay due to the passage of time
27
Keppel & Underwood 1962
* Looked closely at Peterson & Peterson
* Subjects memory for letters on trial 1 was high
* After a few trials performance dropped
* Poor after 18 second delay
* Data from Peterson & Peterson was a result of poor performance on later trials
28
Interference
Keppel & Underwood
* Proactive Interference
* Retractive Interference
Rapid forgetting from Peterson & Peterson was not due to extended delay but interference from earlier stimulus in the trial
29
Proactive Interference
* Keppel & Underwood 1962
* Interference that happens when stimulus that was learned first interferes with learning new information
30
Retroactive Interference
* Keppel & Underwood 1962
* Interference that occurs when new learning interferes with remembering old learning
31
Zhang & Luck 2009 - Interference
* Imagine learning two languages
* Effective duration of Short Term Memory is about 15-20 seconds
* After that interference seems to take
32
Decay & Interference Modal Model of Memory
* We forget sensory memory because of decay
* We forget Short-term Memory because of interference
33
* We forget Sensory Memory due to Decay
* We forget Short-term Memory due to Interference
34
Short-term Capacity
* Digit Span is how many numbers you can remember in a sequence
* Most people remember 5-9 numbers
* George Miller 1965 The Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus 2
* Argued the human mind is limited to about 7 Items
35
Short-term Capacity - Cowan 2001
Recent studies have measured STM Capacity more accurately at 4 items
36
Luck & Vogel 1997 - STM Capacity
* Measure capacity of STM by using **Change Detection**
* The process of identifying differences in the state of an object or phenomenon by observing it at different times
* Easy with few items
* Especially harder if number of items was greater that STM Capacity (5-7 items)
37
Chunking - Luck & Vogel 1997
* Small units of stimulus can be combined into larger meaningful units
* A chunk is a collection of elements that have strong meaningful connections with each other
38
Chunking - Ericsson & Co. 1980
* Trained a college student with average memory to use chunking
* Had digit span of 7 items
* had 230 x 1 hour training classes, could remember 79 digits
* Chunking enables STM to cope with large amounts of stimulus involved in every day tasks
39
Short-term Memory - Alvarez & Cavanagh 2004
* Used complex objects to do change detection experiments
* Stimulus had low information squares to high information cubes
40
Complex Change Detection
* Subjecs ability to manage same and different judgement depended on how complex the stimulus was
* Capacity for squares was 4.4 but only 1.6 for cubes
* The larger the information in an image the fewer items can be held in STM
41
Summary of Sensory Memory
* SM is being able to retain the amount of stimulus over a brief period of time
* Sperling showed poorer performance after delaying was due to decay
* Two types of decay - Iconic Memory and Retroactive Memory
* SM Can register large volumes of stimulus due to chunking
* Some memory from SM is passed to STM
42
Summarise Interference
* New information can interfere with old learning
* Old information can interfere with new learning
* STM capacity has been revised to about 4 items
* Chunking allows more items to be stored in memory
* Alvarez & Cavanagh showed the more complicated an image was the fewer can be held in STM
43
Working Memory
* Role of STM extends beyond storage
* It involves transfer of info to and from Long-term Memory
* STM deals with dynamic processes that transfer info and leads to rethinking of its nature
* Proposal that STM processes all called Working Memory
44
Baddeley & Hitch 1974 - Working Memory
* Limited Capacity for temporary storage and manipulation of information
* Concerned with storage, processing and manipulation of information
* Active during complex cognition
45
Baddeley's Working Memory Models
* Takes into account for the dynamic processes involved in cognition
* Understanding language and doing math
* People can do two things at once
1. Phonological Loop
2. Central Executive
3. Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad
46
Baddeley's Working Memory Model
* Phonological Loop - Verbal and Auditory Information
* Central Executive
* Visuospatial Sketch Pad
47
Phonological Loop
* Verbal and Auditory Information
* Contains Phonological Store - has limited capacity
* Holds info for a few seconds
* Carries out Articulatory Rehearsal Process
* Assists to keep Phonological Store from decay
48
Visuospatial Sketch Pad
* Holds visual and spatial information
* When we form a picture in our mind
* Do tasks like solve puzzles or reading maps
49
Central Executive
* Phonological Loop and Visuospatial Sketch Pad attached here
* Major work of working memory happens here
* Pulls information from LTM to coordinate Phonological Loop and Visuospatial Sketchpad
* Focuses on task specifics and decides how to divide attention in a task
* Recent research says Central Executive is many separate functions
50
Phonological Similarity Effect
* Letters or words that sound similar can get confused
* Conrad 1964 flashed letters on a screen and got ppl to write them down
* When errors were found they tend to confuse letters that sounded similar
* F was most often confused with S or X
* Not as likely to be confused with E even thought they look similar
51
Word length Effect
* Memory for lists of words is better for short words
* Takes longer to rehears long words and to produce them during recall
* Subjects remembered 778% of short words but only 60% of long words
52
Articulatory Suppression
* We can prevent success in phonological loop by getting them to repeat irrelevant sounds instead
* Speaking prevents rehearsal from being remembered
* Reduces memory span, word length effect and reduces phonological effect
53
Shephared & Metzler 1971
Experiment to decide if two unusual objects were the same or different
54
* Shepard & Metzler 1971
* Mental Rotation Experiment
* Experiment to decide if two unusual objects were the same or different
* Rotate image in their mind and called this **Mental Rotation**
55
Mental Rotation Experiment
Shepard & Metzler 1971
Trials that needed more mental rotations took longer
56
Lee Brooks 1968
* Demonstrated how interference can affect Visuospatial Sketch Pad
* Response times more that twice as long for pointing (28.2) than verbal responses (11.3)
57
Evidence for Central Executive
* People with Prefrontal Lobe Damage more likely to repeat actions even if it is not successful
* This repetition is called preservation
58
Testing Central Executive
* Vogel et al 2005
* Separated participants into high capacity and low capacity groups
* Each did a change detection task
* Event Related Potentials were measured to indicate how much space was used in Working Memory
59
2nd Vogel Central Executive Experiment
* Added condition where he added extra blue lines
* Caused increase in response of high capacity group
* Caused much larger increase in the low capacity group
* Some people's central executives are better at allocation attention than others
60
Lexicality Effect
* Hulme et al 1991
* Words are recalled better than non words
61
Word Frequency Effect
* Watkins 1977
* Frequent words are recalled better that infrequent words
62
Language Familiarity Effect
* Thorn, Gathercole & Frankish 2002
* Words from a bilingual's primary language are recalled better that the second language
63
Semantic Similarity Effect
* Baddeley 1966a
* Recall is better for semantically similar lists than non-similar
64
Phonological Neighbourhood Effect
Clarkson, Roodenrys , Miller & Hulme, 2017
Recall is better for words from dense phonological neighbourhoods than sparse
65
Redintegration Hypothesis
Long term memory has an influence on recall from short-term memory
Schweickert 1993
Items not affected by decay can be recalled from Short-term Memory
Decayed items compared to intact lexicon to replace the degraded information
66
Episodic Buffer - Baddeley 2009
* Back up storage that communicates between LTM and working memory
* Holds information longer and has greater capacity than phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad
* Serves as general storage system
* Episodic Buffer as a concept is still in early stages of development
67
Prefrontal Cortex, Working Memory and the Brain
* Prefrontal cortex is responsible for processing incoming visual and auditory information.
* Monkeys without a prefrontal cortex have difficulty holding
information in working memory.
* Called the Delayed Response Task experiment
68
Response Neurons Experiment
* Funahashi & Co, 1989
* Collected single cell recordings from monkey’s prefrontal cortex during a delayed response task
* Pictured - response of neurons in the monkey’s prefrontal cortex during an attentional task.
69
Two States of Neural Networks that Store Information
* Stokes 2015
* Neurons are not always firing in the delay period
There are at lease two states of a neural network that store information
1. Activity State - Information to be remembered causes neurons to fire
2. Synaptic State - When neuron firing stops, connections between neurons are strengthened
70
* Stokes 2015
* Neurons are not always firing in the delay period
There are at lease two states of a neural network that store information
1. Activity State - Information to be remembered causes neurons to fire
2. Synaptic State - When neuron firing stops, connections between neurons are strengthened
71
Cognitive Control
Processes that allow us to adapt and vary our behaviour from situation to situation including:
* Shifting
* Updating
* Attentional Control
* Inhibitory Control
* Working memory
* Cognitive Flexibility
These systems add up to executive functions
72
Executive Function
* Psychological Wellbeing but also connected to psychopathology
* EF Affects rumination, worry, poor emotion regulation
* Also connected with Schizophrenia, major depression, Bipolar, PTSD and trait anxiety
* Also associated with ADHD, Tourettes & Autism
* Sneyder et al 2015
73
Dysexecutive Syndrome
* Can occur through Brain injury, neurological damage or developmental issues
* Phineas Cage
Symptoms may include:
* Behavioral disinhibition
* Lack of planning and forward thinking
* Lack of self awareness
* Lack of appreciation of humor
* Lack of ability to take another individual's perspective
* Risk taking
* Difficulty using appropriate judgment in social behavior
