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2112 - Foundational Cognition > Week 4 Slides > Flashcards

Week 4 Slides Flashcards

1
Q

What is Memory?

A
  • Encoding
  • Retaining
  • Retreiving

Using Information about:

  • Stimuli
  • Images
  • Events
  • Ideas
  • Skills

After the original information is no longer present

Any time something in the past impacts your thinking or behaviour in the future

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2
Q

Remember Ebbinghaus 1885

A

How quickly is information lost over time

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3
Q

Short-term Memory

A
  • Learning or recall everything was in the STM once
  • Continuously being refreshed
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4
Q

What is Remembering

A
  • What experiences are remembered?
  • How is this experience stored
  • How is it retrieved once storied
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5
Q

Memory is Hypothetical

A

Memory Processes and Structures can be inferred

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6
Q

Grant 1976

A
  • Found that when samples are presented for longer peoples performance would be more accurate
  • Proposed that sample leaves neurological trace
  • Trace decays over time
  • % correct represents the strength of the trace
  • Downward slope of accuracy indicates decay
  • Traces were parallels so strength and decay were independent of each other
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7
Q

Define Memory

A
  • Memory is the process involved in encoding, retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present.
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8
Q

Can Memory be a Process?

A
  • A process that is being used when the past impacts how we think or behave in the future
  • Short-term Memory has limited capacity
    *
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9
Q

Delayed Matching to Sample procedure

A
  • Used to measure memory
  • Participant is shown a sample stimulus
  • After a X time, a pair of test stimuli is shown
  • Select the test stimulus that matches the earlier sample stimulus.
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10
Q

Trace Decay

A
  • Visual stimulus leaves a trace
  • Trace decays over time
  • Decay rate is constant
  • Decay is not dependent of the strength of trace
  • Trace can be messed with
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11
Q

Modal Model of Memory

A
  • Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968
  • Sensory Memoery
  • Short-term memory
  • Long-term Memory
  • Rehearsal
  • Output
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12
Q

Called Modal Model because . . .

A

Contains features of many memory models taht were being proposed in the 60’s

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13
Q

Control Processes

A
  • A process that can be controlled by someone
  • Rehearsal
  • Strategies of attention
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14
Q

What Control Processes work Best?

A
  • Atkinson & Shiffrin 1977 - Proposed that rehearsal improves memory
  • Craik & Lockhart 1972 - Proposed Levels of Processing Theory

It’s not the amount of processing but the quality of processing that results in best memory retention

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15
Q

Levels of Processing Theory

A
  • Craik & Lockhart 1972
  • Quality and depth of encoding is more important for long term memory than rehearsal
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16
Q

Persistence of Vision

A
  • Continuing to see a stimulus even after it has disappeared
  • The effects of sensory stimulation that are retained for a brief time
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17
Q

Sperling 1960

A
  • Measuring capacity and duration of Sensory Memory
  • Letter array flashed for 50ms
  • Participants asked to report as many as possible
  • Whole Report Method
  • Partial Report Method
  • Delayed Partial Report Method
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18
Q

Whole Report Method

A
  • Sperling 1960
  • Array flashed for 50ms asked to report as many as possible
  • Average 4.5/12 reported
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19
Q

Partial Report Method

A
  • Sperling 1960
  • Heard tone after matrix presented
  • Each sound told them what row to report
  • Able to report 3.3/4 on average from any row
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20
Q

Delayed Report Method

A
  • Sperling 1960
  • Presentation of tone delayed by one second after visual stimulus shown
  • Performance decreased rapidly
  • Average 1/4 letters reported
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21
Q

Results Sperling 1960

A
  • Decrease in recall due to rapid decay of Iconic Memory
  • Visual Stimulus hits our visual receptors and is stored in the STM
  • This stimulus decays decays rapidly in under a second
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22
Q

Iconic Memory

A
  • Brief sensory memory of things we see
  • Responsible for Persistence Vision
  • Corresponds to Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Modal Model of Memory
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23
Q

Echoic Memory

A
  • Similar to measuring capacity of visual stimulus measures auditory stimulus
  • Sounds also persist in the mind
  • This is called Echoic Memory
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24
Q

Echoic Memory

A
  • Brief Sensory memory of things we hear
  • Responsible for Persistence of Sound
  • Echoic Memory lasts for a few seconds
  • Darwin et al 1972
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25
Q

Recall

A
  • Reporting stimulus after a delay of presentation of the stimulus
  • Can be measured as a percentage
  • Can be visual and auditory
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26
Q

Peterson & Peterson 1959

A
  • Read 3 letters then 3 numbers
  • Count backwards by 3’s
  • after delay recall 3 letters
  • After 3 second delay people had 80% recall and after 18 seconds had 10%
  • Reduced performance due to decay due to the passage of time
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27
Q

Keppel & Underwood 1962

A
  • Looked closely at Peterson & Peterson
  • Subjects memory for letters on trial 1 was high
  • After a few trials performance dropped
  • Poor after 18 second delay
  • Data from Peterson & Peterson was a result of poor performance on later trials
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28
Q

Interference

A

Keppel & Underwood

  • Proactive Interference
  • Retractive Interference

Rapid forgetting from Peterson & Peterson was not due to extended delay but interference from earlier stimulus in the trial

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29
Q

Proactive Interference

A
  • Keppel & Underwood 1962
  • Interference that happens when stimulus that was learned first interferes with learning new information
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30
Q

Retroactive Interference

A
  • Keppel & Underwood 1962
  • Interference that occurs when new learning interferes with remembering old learning
31
Q

Zhang & Luck 2009 - Interference

A
  • Imagine learning two languages
  • Effective duration of Short Term Memory is about 15-20 seconds
  • After that interference seems to take
32
Q

Decay & Interference Modal Model of Memory

A
  • We forget sensory memory because of decay
  • We forget Short-term Memory because of interference
33
Q
A
  • We forget Sensory Memory due to Decay
  • We forget Short-term Memory due to Interference
34
Q

Short-term Capacity

A
  • Digit Span is how many numbers you can remember in a sequence
  • Most people remember 5-9 numbers
  • George Miller 1965 The Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus 2
  • Argued the human mind is limited to about 7 Items
35
Q

Short-term Capacity - Cowan 2001

A

Recent studies have measured STM Capacity more accurately at 4 items

36
Q

Luck & Vogel 1997 - STM Capacity

A
  • Measure capacity of STM by using Change Detection
  • The process of identifying differences in the state of an object or phenomenon by observing it at different times
  • Easy with few items
  • Especially harder if number of items was greater that STM Capacity (5-7 items)
37
Q

Chunking - Luck & Vogel 1997

A
  • Small units of stimulus can be combined into larger meaningful units
  • A chunk is a collection of elements that have strong meaningful connections with each other
38
Q

Chunking - Ericsson & Co. 1980

A
  • Trained a college student with average memory to use chunking
  • Had digit span of 7 items
  • had 230 x 1 hour training classes, could remember 79 digits
  • Chunking enables STM to cope with large amounts of stimulus involved in every day tasks
39
Q

Short-term Memory - Alvarez & Cavanagh 2004

A
  • Used complex objects to do change detection experiments
  • Stimulus had low information squares to high information cubes
40
Q

Complex Change Detection

A
  • Subjecs ability to manage same and different judgement depended on how complex the stimulus was
  • Capacity for squares was 4.4 but only 1.6 for cubes
  • The larger the information in an image the fewer items can be held in STM
41
Q

Summary of Sensory Memory

A
  • SM is being able to retain the amount of stimulus over a brief period of time
  • Sperling showed poorer performance after delaying was due to decay
  • Two types of decay - Iconic Memory and Retroactive Memory
  • SM Can register large volumes of stimulus due to chunking
  • Some memory from SM is passed to STM
42
Q

Summarise Interference

A
  • New information can interfere with old learning
  • Old information can interfere with new learning
  • STM capacity has been revised to about 4 items
  • Chunking allows more items to be stored in memory
  • Alvarez & Cavanagh showed the more complicated an image was the fewer can be held in STM
43
Q

Working Memory

A
  • Role of STM extends beyond storage
  • It involves transfer of info to and from Long-term Memory
  • STM deals with dynamic processes that transfer info and leads to rethinking of its nature
  • Proposal that STM processes all called Working Memory
44
Q

Baddeley & Hitch 1974 - Working Memory

A
  • Limited Capacity for temporary storage and manipulation of information
  • Concerned with storage, processing and manipulation of information
  • Active during complex cognition
45
Q

Baddeley’s Working Memory Models

A
  • Takes into account for the dynamic processes involved in cognition
  • Understanding language and doing math
  • People can do two things at once
  1. Phonological Loop
  2. Central Executive
  3. Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad
46
Q
A

Baddeley’s Working Memory Model

  • Phonological Loop - Verbal and Auditory Information
  • Central Executive
  • Visuospatial Sketch Pad
47
Q

Phonological Loop

A
  • Verbal and Auditory Information
  • Contains Phonological Store - has limited capacity
  • Holds info for a few seconds
  • Carries out Articulatory Rehearsal Process
  • Assists to keep Phonological Store from decay
48
Q

Visuospatial Sketch Pad

A
  • Holds visual and spatial information
  • When we form a picture in our mind
  • Do tasks like solve puzzles or reading maps
49
Q

Central Executive

A
  • Phonological Loop and Visuospatial Sketch Pad attached here
  • Major work of working memory happens here
  • Pulls information from LTM to coordinate Phonological Loop and Visuospatial Sketchpad
  • Focuses on task specifics and decides how to divide attention in a task
  • Recent research says Central Executive is many separate functions
50
Q

Phonological Similarity Effect

A
  • Letters or words that sound similar can get confused
  • Conrad 1964 flashed letters on a screen and got ppl to write them down
  • When errors were found they tend to confuse letters that sounded similar
  • F was most often confused with S or X
  • Not as likely to be confused with E even thought they look similar
51
Q

Word length Effect

A
  • Memory for lists of words is better for short words
  • Takes longer to rehears long words and to produce them during recall
  • Subjects remembered 778% of short words but only 60% of long words
52
Q

Articulatory Suppression

A
  • We can prevent success in phonological loop by getting them to repeat irrelevant sounds instead
  • Speaking prevents rehearsal from being remembered
  • Reduces memory span, word length effect and reduces phonological effect
53
Q

Shephared & Metzler 1971

A

Experiment to decide if two unusual objects were the same or different

54
Q
A
  • Shepard & Metzler 1971
  • Mental Rotation Experiment
  • Experiment to decide if two unusual objects were the same or different
  • Rotate image in their mind and called this Mental Rotation
55
Q

Mental Rotation Experiment

A

Shepard & Metzler 1971

Trials that needed more mental rotations took longer

56
Q

Lee Brooks 1968

A
  • Demonstrated how interference can affect Visuospatial Sketch Pad
  • Response times more that twice as long for pointing (28.2) than verbal responses (11.3)
57
Q

Evidence for Central Executive

A
  • People with Prefrontal Lobe Damage more likely to repeat actions even if it is not successful
  • This repetition is called preservation
58
Q

Testing Central Executive

A
  • Vogel et al 2005
  • Separated participants into high capacity and low capacity groups
  • Each did a change detection task
  • Event Related Potentials were measured to indicate how much space was used in Working Memory
59
Q

2nd Vogel Central Executive Experiment

A
  • Added condition where he added extra blue lines
  • Caused increase in response of high capacity group
  • Caused much larger increase in the low capacity group
  • Some people’s central executives are better at allocation attention than others
60
Q

Lexicality Effect

A
  • Hulme et al 1991
  • Words are recalled better than non words
61
Q

Word Frequency Effect

A
  • Watkins 1977
  • Frequent words are recalled better that infrequent words
62
Q

Language Familiarity Effect

A
  • Thorn, Gathercole & Frankish 2002
  • Words from a bilingual’s primary language are recalled better that the second language
63
Q

Semantic Similarity Effect

A
  • Baddeley 1966a
  • Recall is better for semantically similar lists than non-similar
64
Q

Phonological Neighbourhood Effect

A

Clarkson, Roodenrys , Miller & Hulme, 2017

Recall is better for words from dense phonological neighbourhoods than sparse

65
Q

Redintegration Hypothesis

A

Long term memory has an influence on recall from short-term memory

Schweickert 1993

Items not affected by decay can be recalled from Short-term Memory

Decayed items compared to intact lexicon to replace the degraded information

66
Q

Episodic Buffer - Baddeley 2009

A
  • Back up storage that communicates between LTM and working memory
  • Holds information longer and has greater capacity than phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad
  • Serves as general storage system
  • Episodic Buffer as a concept is still in early stages of development
67
Q

Prefrontal Cortex, Working Memory and the Brain

A
  • Prefrontal cortex is responsible for processing incoming visual and auditory information.
  • Monkeys without a prefrontal cortex have difficulty holding
    information in working memory.
  • Called the Delayed Response Task experiment
68
Q

Response Neurons Experiment

A
  • Funahashi & Co, 1989
  • Collected single cell recordings from monkey’s prefrontal cortex during a delayed response task
  • Pictured - response of neurons in the monkey’s prefrontal cortex during an attentional task.
69
Q

Two States of Neural Networks that Store Information

A
  • Stokes 2015
  • Neurons are not always firing in the delay period

There are at lease two states of a neural network that store information

  1. Activity State - Information to be remembered causes neurons to fire
  2. Synaptic State - When neuron firing stops, connections between neurons are strengthened
70
Q
A
  • Stokes 2015
  • Neurons are not always firing in the delay period

There are at lease two states of a neural network that store information

  1. Activity State - Information to be remembered causes neurons to fire
  2. Synaptic State - When neuron firing stops, connections between neurons are strengthened
71
Q

Cognitive Control

A

Processes that allow us to adapt and vary our behaviour from situation to situation including:

  • Shifting
  • Updating
  • Attentional Control
  • Inhibitory Control
  • Working memory
  • Cognitive Flexibility

These systems add up to executive functions

72
Q

Executive Function

A
  • Psychological Wellbeing but also connected to psychopathology
  • EF Affects rumination, worry, poor emotion regulation
  • Also connected with Schizophrenia, major depression, Bipolar, PTSD and trait anxiety
  • Also associated with ADHD, Tourettes & Autism
  • Sneyder et al 2015
73
Q

Dysexecutive Syndrome

A
  • Can occur through Brain injury, neurological damage or developmental issues
  • Phineas Cage

Symptoms may include:

  • Behavioral disinhibition
  • Lack of planning and forward thinking
  • Lack of self awareness
  • Lack of appreciation of humor
  • Lack of ability to take another individual’s perspective
  • Risk taking
  • Difficulty using appropriate judgment in social behavior

2112 - Foundational Cognition (19 decks)

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