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2112 - Foundational Cognition > Week 2 - Slides > Flashcards

Week 2 - Slides Flashcards

1
Q

Critical Thinking

A
  • A form of judgement that is ppurposeful and reflective
  • Critical thinkers consider:
    • Evidence
    • Context of Judgement
    • Criteria of Judgement
    • Theories for understanding problems & Evidence
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2
Q

Why is Critical Thinking Good?

A
  • Usefull for solving problems and decision making
  • Supports our ability to decide what to beleive
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3
Q

A good critical thinker

A
  • Asks hard questions
  • Gathers information
  • Interpretsinformation effectively
  • Thinks open-mindedly
  • Challenges Assumptions
  • Considers alternative perspectives
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4
Q

Critical Thinking Involves . . .

A
  • Acquiring Information
  • Involves informal/everyday logic
  • Evaluates information to reach a justifiable conslusion
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5
Q

Advanced Critical Thinking involves . . .

A
  • Assessment of beleifs
  • Identification of information that influences judgement
    • Prejudice
    • Bias
    • Propoganda
    • Self Deception
    • Distortion
    • Misinformation
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6
Q

Hindrances to Critical Thinking

A
  • Critical Thinking does not guarantee true or correct results will be acheived
  • May not have all the relevant informaiton
  • We may succumb to psychological biases or errors in judegment
  • These errors reduce our ability to think critically
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7
Q

Challenge your beliefs

A

Some questions you can ask yourself…

  1. What do you believe anyway?
  2. How well based is the opinion you already hold?
  3. How good is the evidence?
  4. Does the current evidence really contradict what you already believe?
  5. What evidence would be sufficient to change your mind?
  6. Is it worth finding out about, or is it a case of “why not?”
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8
Q

Challenging Beliefs: Learning Styles

A

CLAIM: A person’s learning style will predict how well they learn.

  • Concept still taught in education degrees
  • Over 90% of teachers think it is true & valuable
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9
Q

Learning Styles - Evidence

A
  • Lodge, Hansen & Cottrell, 2016
  • No credible evidence of a benefit of learning styles
  • Studies have repeatedly shown no effect
  • The questionnaire (VARK) has very low reliability & validity.
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10
Q

Critical Thinking While Studying

A
  • Critical Thinking is important in studying
  • Learning well requires thinking well
  • Learning occurs in two phases
    1. Basic ideas, principles and theories in content
    2. Applying critical thinking at all times when applying knowledge gained in phase 1.
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11
Q

Questions to ask while Studying

A
  • What does this mean?
  • Why did we come to this conclusion?
  • What was the source of the information?
  • What assumptions led us to that conclusion?
  • Why did we make those assumptions?
  • What are the implications if our conclusions are incorrect?
  • How do I know whether this is true?
  • Are there any alternative explanations for this phenomenon?
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12
Q

Challenge your Beliefs: Studying

A
  • Cramming before an exam
  • Taking verbatim notes
  • Re-reading (fluency)
  • Highlighting

vs

  • Distributed practice
  • Conceptual note taking
  • Retrieval
  • It doesn’t take more time!
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13
Q

Critical Thinking Summary

A
  • A form of judgement
  • Is purposeful and reflective
  • Used to make decisions, problem solve
  • Challenges our beleifs and actions
  • Helps but does not guarantee that we will overcome inherent biases
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14
Q

Learning refers to:

A
  • Relatively permanent change in a person’s behaviour
  • Brought about by repeated experiences
  • Changes that cannot be explained by maturation or external influences like fatigue or drug use
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15
Q

Pragmatism

A
  • William James, John Dewey
  • A philosophical framework to understand psychology
  • Evaluate Scientific Theory based on how well it explains data
  • Is practical in nature
  • Does not speculate on a greater, transcendental truth
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16
Q

Pragmatism Defined

A
  • Theory and practice cannot be separated when used as tools to understand the world
  • Assumptions that the mind is more than physical science is not needed or useful
  • Introspection or intuition are not valid methods of philosophical investigation
  • We learn when interacting with the environment
  • We need to be objective when assigning causes to behaviour that we cannot observe.
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17
Q

Behavourist Theory

A
  • Scientific Psychology should only study observable behaviour
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18
Q

Define Behaviourism

A
  • A theory of behaviour study that says Scientific Psychology should only study observable behaviour.
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19
Q

Methodological Behaviourism

A

Private events and experiences exist, but they are subjective and should be ignored

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20
Q

Radical Behaviourism

A
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21
Q

Theoretical Behaviourism

A
  • Private Events Exist
  • They are controlled by the same processes that control overt behaviours
  • They CAN influence our overt behaviours
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22
Q

Pavlovian Conditioning/Associative Learning

A
  • Conditioning where we learn by making associations
  • Neutral stimulus can create a response when we pair it with another emotion evoking experience
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23
Q

Associative Learning Key Terms

A
  • Unconditioned Stimulus
  • Conditioned Stimulus
  • Unconditioned Response
  • Conditioned Response
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24
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A

A stimulus that has biological relevance to the learner e.g. food

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25
Q
A
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26
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A
  • A cue that initially does not elicit a response
  • No biological relevance for the learner e.g. bell
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27
Q

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A
  • A response that is elicited to the US because of its biological relevance.
  • A “naturally” occurring response or reflex e.g. salivation
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28
Q

Conditioned Response (CR)

A
  • A learned response that is elicited to the CS
  • Can be the same as the UR e.g. salivation
  • Can be preparatory behaviour e.g. freezing
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29
Q

Phenomena in Associative Learing

A
  • Associative Behaviour increases with repeated exposure to the CS-US pairings; up to a point
  • Repeated CS only experiences result in lower probability of conditioned response
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30
Q

Associative Learning: Acquisition

A

The probability of the behaviour increases with repeated CSUS
pairings, up to a point

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31
Q

Associative Learning: Extinction

A

The probability of the behaviour decreases with repeated CS
only presentations

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32
Q

Two drawbacks of Associative Learning: Acquisition

A
  • Blocking
  • Conditioned Inhibition
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33
Q

Hindrance to Associative Learning: Blocking

A
  • After a CS-US pairing has been established, if a novel stimulus is added without any changes to the US, learning of the novel stimulus will be weakened (blocked).
  • It is harder to learn a new association if there is no chagne to the first association
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34
Q

Hindrance to Associative Learning: Conditioned Inhibition

A
  • After a Bell-Steak pairing has been established, if a Door Slam (CI) is added but the Bell removed, the Door Slam will become a conditioned inhibitor (CI).
  • If the Bell is presented with the Door Slam without the Steak, the behaviour will not occur.
  • If the Bell is presented without the Door Slam, the behaviour will occur.

A new stimulus will confuse an existing pairing response.

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35
Q

Important Phenomena of Associative Learing

A
  • Latent Inhibition
  • Overexpectation
36
Q

Phenomena is Associative Learning Acquisition:

A
  • Latent Inhibition
  • Overexpectation
  • Spontaneous Recovery
  • Rapid Acquisition
37
Q

Associative Learning Acqusition: Latent Inhibition

A
  • If a stimulus is presented repeatedly without a US, it will be slower to acquire CRs than a novel stimulus
    *
38
Q

Phenomena in Associative Learning: Overexpectation

A

If two CSs are trained separately to the same US, then presented
together, the velocity of the behaviour will be greater than when
either of the CSs are presented alone.

If Bell and Door Slam are trained separetly to Steak, then presented together, the velocity of the Salivation will be greater than when either of the Bell or Door Slam are presented alone.

39
Q

Important Phenomena in Associative Learing: Extinction

A
  • Spontaneous Recovery
  • Rapid Acquisition
40
Q
A
41
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

After a CR has been extinguished the CR will return if the CS is presented again after a rest period

After Salivation response to Bell has been extinguished the Salivation will return if the Bell is presented again after a rest period

42
Q

Rapid Acquistion

A

After a CR has been extinguished the CR will return much faster than the initial acquistion if the CS-US relationship is re-established.

After Salivation when hearing a bell has been extinguished, the salivation will return much faster than the initial acquisition if the Bell-Steak relationship is re-established

43
Q

Associative Learning and Synaptic Plasticity

A
  • Hebb 1949
  • Neurons that Fire Together, Wire Together
  • Presynaptic neurons repeatedly play a role in firing a neuron results in enduring modification of the synaptic structure
  • A presynaptic neuron will be more likely to cause activity in a postsynaptic neuron
  • Neurons that repeatedly fire together create a connection that reinforces them to fire together in the future.
  • Long Term Potentation (LTP)
  • Long Term Depression (LTD)
44
Q

How are Long Term Potentation and Long Tern Depression related to Learning?

A
  • Makes sense theoretically
  • Uses same brain regions as those of learning
    • Hypocampus, Amygdala, Cerebellum
  • Drugs that block LTP impairs animal’s ability to
    learn
  • Genetically modified rats with enhanced LTP show better learning than wild type rats.
45
Q

Pavlovian Conditioning - Rescorla-Wagner 1972

A
  • Three important factors of learning:
    1. Learning will occur if what happens on the trial does not
      match the expectation of the organism
    2. The expectation on each trial is based on the predictive value, or associative strength of all the stimuli present.
    3. The more salient/noticeable the CS, the faster learning will occur.
  • how much does an event that occurs surprise an organism?
  • Associative Learning reduces surprise as an organism can realign their expectations with reality.

Example: Scary kookaburra sounds to the First Fleet sailors, not scary to indigenous peoples. Now no longer scary to Europeans either.

46
Q
A
47
Q

ΔV=αβ(λ−ΣV)

A
  • Rescorla-Wagner 1972
  • How much learning occurs in a single trial?
48
Q

Rescorla-Wagner 1972 - ΔV=αβ(λ−ΣV)

A
  • ΔV: The change in the associative strength of a stimulus
  • α: The salience of the CS (0-1)
  • λ: The maximum conditioning possible for the US
  • ΣV: The total associative strength of the stimulus

This is what we want to find: the amount of learning that occurs in a single trial.

  • Sometimes α and β are combined into K: total salience
49
Q

Learning and Behaviour from the Pragmatist Tradition

A
  • Learning is data driven philosphy of understanding
  • Strength of theory based on how well it explains data
  • Does it work better than other available Theories
50
Q

Theory of Behaviourism

A
  • Scientific Psychology shoud only study observable behaviour
  • Can include private events
  • Does not assume private events cause outward behaviours
51
Q

What is Learning

A
  • Refers to a relativley permanent change in a person’s behaviour in response to a situation
  • Change can be reinforced by repeated exposure to that situation
52
Q

Associative Learning

A
  • Conditioning in which neutral stimulus can produce a response when exposed repeatedly to another stimulus
  • Rescorla-Wagner models associative learning as a way for animals to realign their expectations with reality
53
Q

Operant Conditioning/Instrumental Learning

A
  • Term coined by B.F Skinner
  • Describes the effect of rewards and consequences of a particular behaviour on the future occurance of that behaviour
  • a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior.
  • Teach rat to press a button to receive food
54
Q

Law of Effect - Thorndike 1989

A
  • Responses that produce a positive effect are more likely to occur again, and responses that are discomforting are less likely to be repeated in that situation
  • Reinforcement and Punishment
55
Q

Thorndike - Reinforcement

A

A consequence that results in an increase in the frequency of a behaviour

56
Q

Thorndike - Punishment

A

A consequence that results in a decrease in the frequency of a behaviour

57
Q

The Operant - B.F. Skinner

A

S → R → O

Discriminative Stimulus → Response → Outcome

Sometimes the O is also an R for Reinforcement

58
Q

Positive and Negative Reinforcement Chart

A
  • Positive Reinforcement
    • Add something good to increase behaviour
  • Positive Punishment
    • Add something bad to decrease behaviour
  • Negative Reinforcement
    • Remove something bad to increase behaviour
  • Negaive Punishment
    • Remove something Good to decrease behaviour
59
Q

Schedules of Reinforcement

A
  • Amount of certainty vs frequency of presentation of stimulus can be changed to acheive certain conditioning??
60
Q

Instrumental Learning - Key Terms

A
  • Discriminative Stimuli
  • Generalisation

Reactions to a Discriminative Stimulus that are similar to a Conditioned Stimulus in Classical Conditioning

61
Q

Discriminative Stimuli

A
  • Cues influence operant behaviour
  • They indicate a probable consequence of a response
  • This can be re-inforcement or n-n-reinforcement of a response

eg: rat only presses a lever when a light comes on

62
Q

Generalisation

A
  • Reacting to a stimuli in response to a stimuli that is similar to the conditioned stimulus
    eg: A cat that responds to a can opener sound may respond to the sound of other kitchen appliances.
63
Q

Stimulus Generalisation - Little Albert

A
  • Little Albert developed conditioned emotional fear response to a rat through repeated pairings with a loud noise
  • Little Albert’s fear was generalised to similar stimuli
    • furry objects
    • rabbits
    • fur coat
    • Santa Claus Mask
64
Q

Stimulus Generalisation - Guttman & Kalish 1956

A
  • Guttman & Kalish 1956
  • Trained pigeons to respond to different light wavelengths
  • Pigeons learned to respond to those wavelentghs and also to wavelengths that were similar
  • A formed a generalisation gradient
65
Q

Stimulus Generalisation - Hearst et al 1964

A
  • The higher the rate of reinforcement the more peaked the generalisation gradient was
  • Discrimination
  • Feedback can directo more attention to relevant Stimuli
66
Q

Instrumental Learning and Choice

A
  • The Matching Law
  • Herrnstein 1961
  • The relationship between the rates of responding and the rates of reinforcement between two choices
  • Put simply, the relative rate of responding between two choices is
    equal to their relative rates of reinforcement, with all things being
    equal.
67
Q

Factors that Affect Matching

A
  • Bias - Baum 1974
  • Sensitivity - Davison & McCarthy 1988
68
Q

Factors that affect matching - Bias

A
  • Baum 1974
  • Inherent factors in a human or animal that consistently produces a bias in choosing one choice over another

E.g. handedness

69
Q

Factors that affect matching - Sensitivity

A
  • Davison & McCarthy, 1988)
  • Sensitivity to changes in the reinforcer ratio
  • Overmatching
    • Over sensitivity to changes in reinforcer rate
  • Undermatching
    • Under sensitivity to changes in reinforcer rate
70
Q

Instrumental Learning

A
  • How consequences of behaviour influences the future occurene of that behaviour
71
Q

Law of Effect

A
  • Describes the effects of reinforcement and punishment
    • Reinforcement increases behaviour
    • Punishment decreases behaviour
72
Q

Discriminative Stimulus

A
  • Cues that indicate the probable consequence of a behaviour
    eg: traffic lights
73
Q

Generalisation

A
  • Choice behaviour can be approximated by the Matching Law
  • Animals and humans can generalise behaviour across similar stimuli
74
Q

Tolman & Honzing 1930

Latent Learning

A
  • Placed rats in a box area of a T maze
  • One group of rats had food available at end of maze
  • One group of rats had no food available at end of maze
  • One group of rats had no food initially and had food at the end from the 11th day
  • Interpretation 1:
    • Never reinforced: No learning.
    • Always reinforced: Learning.
    • Reinforced later: latent learning.
75
Q

Latent Learning of Cognitive Map

Interesting Observation

A
  • Non reinforced and Latent Learning group were already learning without reinforcement
  • Demostrated no incentive to demostrate learning until the latent learning group was offered food at the end.
  • Learning was always occuring regardless of food reward at the end.
76
Q

Jensen 2006 Lantent Learing Variables

A
  • Challenged Skinner and Tolman saying other variables besides food and reinforcement need to be considered in their rat experiment
  • Phylogeny - Rats naturally explore their environment
  • Rats are likely to learn to avoid Blind Alleys
  • Food is not the only opportunity for reinforcement
77
Q

How much does the Cognitive Map explain?

A
  • Cognitive map alone cannont account for navigation in humans and animals
  • Humans find it difficult to reproduce maps of familiar spaces
  • Landmarks are heavily relied on for navigation
  • Most consistent models are models that include mapping and operant learning components
78
Q

D.M. Skinner 2003

A
  • Trained 3 groups of rats
    • Always turn left/right at first turn to reach food (response)
    • Always head East/West to reach food (direction)
    • Food is always in the same location
  • Groups 1 and 2 learned faster that group 3
  • Especially if the start point was not easy to distinguish
79
Q

Define Cognitive Map

A
  • a mental understanding of an environment, formed through trial and error as well as observation
80
Q

Operant Learning

A

Actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again.

81
Q

Cognitive Map - Dual System View

A
  • Lew 2011
  • A model of navigation that includes the striatal system and the hippocampal system
  • These systems compete and complement one another
82
Q

Striatal System

A

Part of the Basal Ganglia responsible for:

  • Associating objects in the environment with rewards
    • Landmarks
    • Local geometric information (e.g. corner angles and wall length)
    • Experience of finding/not finding a reward in certain locations
    • Influenced by operant learning
83
Q

Hippocampal System

A
  • System responsible for the Cognitive Map
    • Encoding fo the goal locations
    • Influenced by latent learning
84
Q

Doeller et al. 2008

A
  • Participants were immersed in virtual space surrounded by a cliff boundary
  • had 4 objects in different locations
  • Asked to Explore the space then Objects removed
  • Asked to click the location where they remembered the objects were
  • Objects moved and participants needed to locate the objects based on a landmark
85
Q

Doeller et al. 2008 - Under fMRI

A
  • Hippocampus was activated when learning about the boundary related objects
  • Striatum was activated when learning about the landmark related objects.
  • Both learning mechanisms and cognitive mapping are used when humans navigate around the world, depending on the situation.
86
Q
A

2112 - Foundational Cognition (19 decks)

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