Week 6 Flashcards
1
Q
What is Memory?
A
Involved in:
- Encoding
- Retaining
- Retrieving
- Using information about
- Images
- events
- ideas
- skills
after the information is no longer present
Memory is active any time the past impacts how we think or behave
2
Q
The Modal Model of Memory
A
- Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968
- There are three memory types
- Sensory Memory
- Short-term Memory
- Long-term Memory
3
Q
Sensory Memory
A
- First stage of memory
- Holds all information perceived for just seconds
4
Q
Short Term Memory
A
Holds 5-7 items for about 15-20 seconds
5
Q
Long-term Memory
A
Holds large amount of information for years or even decades
6
Q
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
A
- Phonological Loop - Verbal and Auditory Information
- Central Executive
- Visuospatial Sketchpad - Visual Spatial Information
7
Q
A
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
8
Q
A
- Encoding Specificity
- People remember information if retrieved in same context that it was encoded
9
Q
A
People remember better if they create an image of what they have to remember
10
Q
A
- Reconsolidation
- Nader
- Anisomycin blocks memory of shock/tone pairing
- Works best when injection and pairing happen together
11
Q
Everyday Memory
A
- Memory is malleable and experiments like Nader/Anisomycin demonstrate
- We usually think we remember things exactly how they happened
12
Q
Autobiographical Memory
A
- Memory of specific experiences in our life
- Can be semantic and episodic
- Are Multidimensional - Has multiple components
- Different memories have different strength of recall
13
Q
Multidimensional Autobiographical Memory
A
- Contains many components - Visual, auditory and other senses
- Also has spatial components
- Involves thoughts and emotions
14
Q
Loss of Autobiographical Memory
A
- Greenberg & Rubin 2003
- People who have damage to visual cortex areas of brain can experience loss of AB Memory
15
Q
Cabeza et al 2004
A
- Compared brain activation for photographs people took vs pictures they have only seen
- Pictures were taken over a 10 day period
- asked to choose which pictures they took under fMRI
- Own-photos and lab-photos both activated same areas
- Own-photos activated
- prefrontal cortex - processing information
- Hippocampus - involved recollection
- Own-photos triggered memories activated more brain area
- *
16
Q
The Reminiscence Bump - Lifespan Autobiography
A
- Conway 1996; Rudin et al 1998
- Significant Events in life tend to be remembered well
- 55 year olds have better memory for events aged 10 - 30
- This bump occurs for ppl over 40
17
Q
Reminiscence Bump - Self Image Hypothesis
A
- Rathbone et al 2008
- Memory is better for events that helps form one’s self image
- Subjects created “I am” statements and attached them to an age it became true
- Average origin date is 25
- Self image develops with memorable events
- Usually occurs during adolescence or young adulthood
18
Q
Reminiscence Bump - Cognitive Hypothesis
A
- Schrauf & Rubin 1998
- Periods of rapid change, followed by stability cause stronger encoding of memories
- Rapid changes during adolescence and adulthood
- Shift in Reminiscence bump for people who emigrated later in life.
19
Q
Reminiscence Bump - Cultural Life Script Hypothesis
A
- Berntsen & Rubin 2004
- Culturally expected events are remembered better
- Many of these occur in the reminiscence bump
- Youth Bias - Koppel & Berntsen 2014
- Most important public events are perceived to occur earlier in life
20
Q
Flashbulb Memories
A
- Particularly emotional and unexpected events appear to be more vivid and remembered for longer
- e.g. 9/11, Challenger Disaster, Steve Irwin Dying
- Vivid recollections about the circumstance surrounding them like where you were when . .
- Brown & Kulik 1997
- “for an instant, the entire nation and perhaps much of the world
stopped still to have its picture taken.” - Appear to be vivid and detailed as if a photo was taken
21
Q
How do we study Flashbulb Memories
A
- Difficult to verify if someone remembers the correct details of the memory
- Repeated recall - testing memory immediatly after stimulus presented, then days, months and years later
- Initial memory used to measure how well we remember
- Experiments indicate flashbulb memories are NOT like photographs
- They change over time - often remain vivid, accuracy reduces over time
22
Q
Flashbulb Memories - Narrative Rehearsal Hypothesis
A
- People mistakenly recall they heard news on TV
- Flashbulb memories may be more vivid because we rehearsed them often
- Seeing events repeatedly on replay may result in focus on the images rather than the actual circumstance
23
Q
Flashbulb Memories - Narrative Rehearsal Hypothesis
A
- People mistakenly recall they heard news on TV
- Flashbulb memories may be more vivid because we rehearsed them often
- Seeing events repeatedly on replay may result in focus on the images rather than the actual circumstance
24
Q
Flashbulb Memories - Talarico & Ruben 2003
A
- Asked people about 9/11 on 12 Sept 2001 and about their lives before the attack
- Subjects aske to write a 2-3 word description to be a cue for the event in the future
- tested at 1 week, 6 weeks or 32 weeks later
- Longer delay showed more errors and fewer details
- BUT - flashbulb memories remained more Vivid
- Subjects believed them to be real even though they were not.
25
Flashbulb Summary
* Autobigraphical memory includes semantic & Episodic components
* They contain multiple components: visual, auditory, spatial, other senses, involve thoughts & emotions
* Significant events in our lives are remembered well - The Reminiscence Bump
* Are more vivid and strongly recalled but are not always accurate
26
Constructing Memory
* What we remember may not always match what happened
* Some things get omitted, distorted and some get reported but did not happen
* What we report as memory has several components: Knowledge, Experiences, Expectations
27
Reconstructed not Retrieved
* When Hillary Clinton gave a speech in 2008
* Told there would be RISK of sniper fire but there was none
* Details were remembered but constructed incorrectly
28
The Illusory Truth Effect
* Repeated exposure to a statement or position more likley to be judged as true
* Fazio 2005
* Presented true and false statements
* Subjects asked read statements and indicate true along with previously unread statements
* Both correct ant incorrect statements rated as true more often if they were already familiar
* **FLUENCY:** The ease with which a statement can be remembered influences judgment
29
**FLUENCY**
The ease with which a statement can be remembered influences judgment
30
Fundamental Cognitive Error
* Our experiences shape how we interpret the world
* We don't recognise when we make an interpretation
* We don't notice when memory shapes what we perceive
31
The Effect of Knowledge on Memory
* Bartlett 1932
* Reproduced a story from Indigenous Canadian Folklore by English people
* Increased the story after many reproductions
* Subjects made errors based on personal knowledge
* such as: A canoe became a boat, hunting seals became sailors
* Subjects appear to reconstruct memory from two sources
* Their own memory of the story
* Similar Stories from their own culture
32
Pragmatic Inference
* Brewer 1977, McDermott & Chan 2006
* Read a sentences leads us to expect something not stated or implied
* These inferences are based on knowledge gained by experience
33
Schemas & Scripts
* Knowledge about the environment influences memory
* Brewer & Treyens 1981
* Subjects wait for 35 secs in an office than write down everything they remembered
* Subjects included things that were not there
* Schemas serve as a guide for making inferences about what we remember
34
Schemas & Scripts Deese 1959; Roedeiger & McDermott 1995
People misremember the list as including the word “sleep” but it was not there
This is because sleep fits the context of the other words
Constructive/Relational Processes created an error in memory
35
Schemas & Scripts - Summary
* the sum of your experience shapes how you perceive the world
* Memory is made up of components: knowledge, experiences, expectations
* Repeated presentation of a statement is likely to be evaluated as true - **The Illusory Effect**
* Life and Culture can influence memory
* Constructive nature of memory is likely to be adaptive
* Helps creativity and thinking but is not always accurate
36
Memory Errors
* Memory systems are prone to errors
* Day to day life can influence the way we remember information
* Information received after an even can alter your memory of an event
37
The Misinformation Effect
* Can be studied by:
* Presenting stimulus to be remembered
* presenting Misleading Postevent Information (MPI)
* Oftern presented in a natural way, people do not feel mislead
* MPI is determined by comparing responses from ppl who have no MPI
38
Misinformation Effect - Loftus & Palmer 1974
* Participants who heard “smashed into” made an average estimate of 41 miles per hour.
* Participants who heard “hit” made an average estimate of 34 miles per hour.
* 32% of participants who heard “smashed into” also reported seeing broken glass after 1 week compare with 14% of the participants who heard “hit”, despite there not being any.
39
Misinformation Effect - Lindsay 1990
* Watched slide of maintenance man stealing money & a computer
* After two days tested differently:
* Difficut - Female Narrative, wait 2 days then test
* Easy - Wait 2 days, Male narrative then test immediately
* Difficult group confused the misleading narrative more often and reported more MPI as correct
40
Creating False Memories - Hyman Jnr et al 1995
* Bogus event presented to subjects within a true event
* Subjects could not remember the event (it was false)
* 2 days later 4/20 incorporated the false information into recollection
* They even embellished the story
41
Creating False Memories
* Showed real photos of subjects with fake photos in made up situations
* At first participants could not recall the events
* 35% reported ‘remembering’ the false events after being asked to picture the event in their mind
* after 2 interviews 50% of participants could ‘remember’ the false event
42
The Mandela Effect
* Named for a shared memory that Nelson Mandela died in prison in the 80's
* Often false memory appears to be confabulation of different pieces of information
* For me it was when Bert from Sesame Street dies.
43
Eyewitness Testimony
* Testimony by someone who has witnessed a crime
* Based on 2 assumptions
1. Witness clearly saw what happened
2. Witness able to remember what they saw and can give an accurate description of perp and event
* Eyewitness accounts are often not accurate unless they are carried out under optimum conditions
*
44
Errors in Eye Witness Identification
* Wells & Bradfield 1998
* Subjects shown video of real or staged crime
* Asked to pick suspect from a photo spread but the gunman was not there
* Stanny & Johnson 2000
* Showed two simulated crimes, one involved shooting and one did not.
* Subjects less likely to remember details when shooting occurred
* Presence of a gunshot distracted attention from other things
45
Misidentification Due to Familiarity
* Experimental Group shown film of male teacher reading to students
* Control Group saw female teacher reading to students
* Both groups shown film of a female teacher being robbed
* Experimental group identified the male teacher as the assailant 3x more often even when the real perpetrator was in the photo spread
46
Post Identification Feedback Effect
* Misidentification due to Suggestion
* Wells & Bradfield 1998
* Subjects shown video of actual crimes , shown a photo spread that did not contain perpetrator
* All subjects picked a photograph
* After choice was make they were given
* Confirming Feedback
* No Feedback
* Disconfirming Feedback
* After time subjects asked about how confident they were and confirming group were more confident than others
47
Sensory Evoked Autobiographical Memories - Proust
Often Involuntary and automatic
Proustian - Marcel Proust a French Novelist
Involuntary memory as containing “The essence of the past”
48
Sensory Evoked Autobiographical Memories
* Herz & Schooler 2002
* Participants rate memory as more emotional when brought about using odour compared to coloured photographs
* Belfi et al 2016
* Subjects recall more perceptual details when prompted by music than photographs
* El Haj et al 2013
* Listening to music enhance autobiographical memories in Alzheimer's patients
49
Peak End Rule - Painful Memories
* Memories of painful experience based on the worst part and the end of a painful experience
* Kahneman et al 1993 had subjects put hands into ice buckets
* Condition 1: 14ºc for 60 seconds
* Condition 2: 14ºc for 60 seconds followed by 15ºc for 30 seconds.
* Participants reported Condition 2 as being less painful.
50
The Peak-End Rule - Redelmeier & Kahneman 1996
* Showed this effect for patients undergoing colonoscopy or lithotripsy
* Recording participants’ pain in real time during the procedure
* Compared retrospective recall to real time
* Peak & end were biggest predictors of recalled pain
51
Summary - Our memory Systems are prone to error
Misinformation Effect describes what happens when information gathered after an event can alter your memory later
52
False Memory Summary
* Can be created by inserting made up information into remembered events
* Suggestion can also do this
53
Eye Witness Testimony Summary
* Eyewitness testimony prone to errors due to:
* Perception & Attention
* Familiarity with the event
* Suggestion by interviewers
54
Autobiographical memories can be evoked by sensory stimuli like smell and is automatic
Painful Memories are based on a peak and end theory
55
Reminiscence Bump
* Significant events from a person's life are easier to remember
* Important life events often occur between 10-30yrs and that is where the Bump occurs
* These important events shape identity and that is why the bump occurs at formative times in one's life
56
Fundamental Cognitive Error
* Our brains make interpretations of how we see the world
* We are not consciously doing this
* We don't notice when memories are being shaped by perception
* We are not aware when we misremember events
57
Pragmatic Inference
* We fill in language based on what makes sense in context.
* This can interfere of our actual memories
58
**MPI**
Misleading Post-event Information
59
Penny Study
* Nickerson & Adams 1979
* Asked Americans go recall what was on a US Penny
* Memory was poor 2-3 features
* Most people could not recall a real coin from spread of fakes
* We have poor memory of common things
60
False Memories
Loftus & Palmer 1979
Subjects watched car crash
Influenced by the severity of a descriptive word when estimating speed of car
e.g. How fast wer the cars going when they *hit/smashed/collided/bumped* each other?
