Week 6 Flashcards
1
Q
What is Memory?
A
Involved in:
- Encoding
- Retaining
- Retrieving
- Using information about
- Images
- events
- ideas
- skills
after the information is no longer present
Memory is active any time the past impacts how we think or behave
2
Q
The Modal Model of Memory
A
- Atkinson & Shiffrin 1968
- There are three memory types
- Sensory Memory
- Short-term Memory
- Long-term Memory
3
Q
Sensory Memory
A
- First stage of memory
- Holds all information perceived for just seconds
4
Q
Short Term Memory
A
Holds 5-7 items for about 15-20 seconds
5
Q
Long-term Memory
A
Holds large amount of information for years or even decades
6
Q
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
A
- Phonological Loop - Verbal and Auditory Information
- Central Executive
- Visuospatial Sketchpad - Visual Spatial Information
7
Q
A
Baddeley’s Working Memory Model
8
Q
A
- Encoding Specificity
- People remember information if retrieved in same context that it was encoded
9
Q
A
People remember better if they create an image of what they have to remember
10
Q
A
- Reconsolidation
- Nader
- Anisomycin blocks memory of shock/tone pairing
- Works best when injection and pairing happen together
11
Q
Everyday Memory
A
- Memory is malleable and experiments like Nader/Anisomycin demonstrate
- We usually think we remember things exactly how they happened
12
Q
Autobiographical Memory
A
- Memory of specific experiences in our life
- Can be semantic and episodic
- Are Multidimensional - Has multiple components
- Different memories have different strength of recall
13
Q
Multidimensional Autobiographical Memory
A
- Contains many components - Visual, auditory and other senses
- Also has spatial components
- Involves thoughts and emotions
14
Q
Loss of Autobiographical Memory
A
- Greenberg & Rubin 2003
- People who have damage to visual cortex areas of brain can experience loss of AB Memory
15
Q
Cabeza et al 2004
A
- Compared brain activation for photographs people took vs pictures they have only seen
- Pictures were taken over a 10 day period
- asked to choose which pictures they took under fMRI
- Own-photos and lab-photos both activated same areas
- Own-photos activated
- prefrontal cortex - processing information
- Hippocampus - involved recollection
- Own-photos triggered memories activated more brain area
- *
16
Q
The Reminiscence Bump - Lifespan Autobiography
A
- Conway 1996; Rudin et al 1998
- Significant Events in life tend to be remembered well
- 55 year olds have better memory for events aged 10 - 30
- This bump occurs for ppl over 40
17
Q
Reminiscence Bump - Self Image Hypothesis
A
- Rathbone et al 2008
- Memory is better for events that helps form one’s self image
- Subjects created “I am” statements and attached them to an age it became true
- Average origin date is 25
- Self image develops with memorable events
- Usually occurs during adolescence or young adulthood
18
Q
Reminiscence Bump - Cognitive Hypothesis
A
- Schrauf & Rubin 1998
- Periods of rapid change, followed by stability cause stronger encoding of memories
- Rapid changes during adolescence and adulthood
- Shift in Reminiscence bump for people who emigrated later in life.
19
Q
Reminiscence Bump - Cultural Life Script Hypothesis
A
- Berntsen & Rubin 2004
- Culturally expected events are remembered better
- Many of these occur in the reminiscence bump
- Youth Bias - Koppel & Berntsen 2014
- Most important public events are perceived to occur earlier in life
20
Q
Flashbulb Memories
A
- Particularly emotional and unexpected events appear to be more vivid and remembered for longer
- e.g. 9/11, Challenger Disaster, Steve Irwin Dying
- Vivid recollections about the circumstance surrounding them like where you were when . .
- Brown & Kulik 1997
- “for an instant, the entire nation and perhaps much of the world
stopped still to have its picture taken.” - Appear to be vivid and detailed as if a photo was taken
21
Q
How do we study Flashbulb Memories
A
- Difficult to verify if someone remembers the correct details of the memory
- Repeated recall - testing memory immediatly after stimulus presented, then days, months and years later
- Initial memory used to measure how well we remember
- Experiments indicate flashbulb memories are NOT like photographs
- They change over time - often remain vivid, accuracy reduces over time
22
Q
Flashbulb Memories - Narrative Rehearsal Hypothesis
A
- People mistakenly recall they heard news on TV
- Flashbulb memories may be more vivid because we rehearsed them often
- Seeing events repeatedly on replay may result in focus on the images rather than the actual circumstance
23
Q
Flashbulb Memories - Narrative Rehearsal Hypothesis
A
- People mistakenly recall they heard news on TV
- Flashbulb memories may be more vivid because we rehearsed them often
- Seeing events repeatedly on replay may result in focus on the images rather than the actual circumstance
24
Q
Flashbulb Memories - Talarico & Ruben 2003
A
- Asked people about 9/11 on 12 Sept 2001 and about their lives before the attack
- Subjects aske to write a 2-3 word description to be a cue for the event in the future
- tested at 1 week, 6 weeks or 32 weeks later
- Longer delay showed more errors and fewer details
- BUT - flashbulb memories remained more Vivid
- Subjects believed them to be real even though they were not.
25
Q
Flashbulb Summary
A
- Autobigraphical memory includes semantic & Episodic components
- They contain multiple components: visual, auditory, spatial, other senses, involve thoughts & emotions
- Significant events in our lives are remembered well - The Reminiscence Bump
- Are more vivid and strongly recalled but are not always accurate
26
Q
Constructing Memory
A
- What we remember may not always match what happened
- Some things get omitted, distorted and some get reported but did not happen
- What we report as memory has several components: Knowledge, Experiences, Expectations
27
Q
Reconstructed not Retrieved
A
- When Hillary Clinton gave a speech in 2008
- Told there would be RISK of sniper fire but there was none
- Details were remembered but constructed incorrectly
28
Q
The Illusory Truth Effect
A
- Repeated exposure to a statement or position more likley to be judged as true
- Fazio 2005
- Presented true and false statements
- Subjects asked read statements and indicate true along with previously unread statements
- Both correct ant incorrect statements rated as true more often if they were already familiar
- FLUENCY: The ease with which a statement can be remembered influences judgment
29
Q
FLUENCY
A
The ease with which a statement can be remembered influences judgment
30
Q
Fundamental Cognitive Error
A
- Our experiences shape how we interpret the world
- We don’t recognise when we make an interpretation
- We don’t notice when memory shapes what we perceive
31
Q
The Effect of Knowledge on Memory
A
- Bartlett 1932
- Reproduced a story from Indigenous Canadian Folklore by English people
- Increased the story after many reproductions
- Subjects made errors based on personal knowledge
- such as: A canoe became a boat, hunting seals became sailors
- Subjects appear to reconstruct memory from two sources
- Their own memory of the story
- Similar Stories from their own culture
32
Q
Pragmatic Inference
A
- Brewer 1977, McDermott & Chan 2006
- Read a sentences leads us to expect something not stated or implied
- These inferences are based on knowledge gained by experience
33
Q
Schemas & Scripts
A
- Knowledge about the environment influences memory
- Brewer & Treyens 1981
- Subjects wait for 35 secs in an office than write down everything they remembered
- Subjects included things that were not there
- Schemas serve as a guide for making inferences about what we remember
34
Q
Schemas & Scripts Deese 1959; Roedeiger & McDermott 1995
A
People misremember the list as including the word “sleep” but it was not there
This is because sleep fits the context of the other words
Constructive/Relational Processes created an error in memory
35
Q
Schemas & Scripts - Summary
A
- the sum of your experience shapes how you perceive the world
- Memory is made up of components: knowledge, experiences, expectations
- Repeated presentation of a statement is likely to be evaluated as true - The Illusory Effect
- Life and Culture can influence memory
- Constructive nature of memory is likely to be adaptive
- Helps creativity and thinking but is not always accurate
36
Q
Memory Errors
A
- Memory systems are prone to errors
- Day to day life can influence the way we remember information
- Information received after an even can alter your memory of an event
37
Q
The Misinformation Effect
A
- Can be studied by:
- Presenting stimulus to be remembered
- presenting Misleading Postevent Information (MPI)
- Oftern presented in a natural way, people do not feel mislead
- MPI is determined by comparing responses from ppl who have no MPI
38
Q
Misinformation Effect - Loftus & Palmer 1974
A
- Participants who heard “smashed into” made an average estimate of 41 miles per hour.
- Participants who heard “hit” made an average estimate of 34 miles per hour.
- 32% of participants who heard “smashed into” also reported seeing broken glass after 1 week compare with 14% of the participants who heard “hit”, despite there not being any.
39
Q
Misinformation Effect - Lindsay 1990
A
- Watched slide of maintenance man stealing money & a computer
- After two days tested differently:
- Difficut - Female Narrative, wait 2 days then test
- Easy - Wait 2 days, Male narrative then test immediately
- Difficult group confused the misleading narrative more often and reported more MPI as correct
40
Q
Creating False Memories - Hyman Jnr et al 1995
A
- Bogus event presented to subjects within a true event
- Subjects could not remember the event (it was false)
- 2 days later 4/20 incorporated the false information into recollection
- They even embellished the story
41
Q
Creating False Memories
A
- Showed real photos of subjects with fake photos in made up situations
- At first participants could not recall the events
- 35% reported ‘remembering’ the false events after being asked to picture the event in their mind
- after 2 interviews 50% of participants could ‘remember’ the false event
42
Q
The Mandela Effect
A
- Named for a shared memory that Nelson Mandela died in prison in the 80’s
- Often false memory appears to be confabulation of different pieces of information
- For me it was when Bert from Sesame Street dies.
43
Q
Eyewitness Testimony
A
- Testimony by someone who has witnessed a crime
- Based on 2 assumptions
- Witness clearly saw what happened
- Witness able to remember what they saw and can give an accurate description of perp and event
- Eyewitness accounts are often not accurate unless they are carried out under optimum conditions
*
44
Q
Errors in Eye Witness Identification
A
- Wells & Bradfield 1998
- Subjects shown video of real or staged crime
- Asked to pick suspect from a photo spread but the gunman was not there
- Stanny & Johnson 2000
- Showed two simulated crimes, one involved shooting and one did not.
- Subjects less likely to remember details when shooting occurred
- Presence of a gunshot distracted attention from other things
45
Q
Misidentification Due to Familiarity
A
- Experimental Group shown film of male teacher reading to students
- Control Group saw female teacher reading to students
- Both groups shown film of a female teacher being robbed
- Experimental group identified the male teacher as the assailant 3x more often even when the real perpetrator was in the photo spread
46
Q
Post Identification Feedback Effect
A
- Misidentification due to Suggestion
- Wells & Bradfield 1998
- Subjects shown video of actual crimes , shown a photo spread that did not contain perpetrator
- All subjects picked a photograph
- After choice was make they were given
- Confirming Feedback
- No Feedback
- Disconfirming Feedback
- After time subjects asked about how confident they were and confirming group were more confident than others
47
Q
Sensory Evoked Autobiographical Memories - Proust
A
Often Involuntary and automatic
Proustian - Marcel Proust a French Novelist
Involuntary memory as containing “The essence of the past”
48
Q
Sensory Evoked Autobiographical Memories
A
- Herz & Schooler 2002
- Participants rate memory as more emotional when brought about using odour compared to coloured photographs
- Belfi et al 2016
- Subjects recall more perceptual details when prompted by music than photographs
- El Haj et al 2013
- Listening to music enhance autobiographical memories in Alzheimer’s patients
49
Q
Peak End Rule - Painful Memories
A
- Memories of painful experience based on the worst part and the end of a painful experience
- Kahneman et al 1993 had subjects put hands into ice buckets
- Condition 1: 14ºc for 60 seconds
- Condition 2: 14ºc for 60 seconds followed by 15ºc for 30 seconds.
- Participants reported Condition 2 as being less painful.
50
Q
The Peak-End Rule - Redelmeier & Kahneman 1996
A
- Showed this effect for patients undergoing colonoscopy or lithotripsy
- Recording participants’ pain in real time during the procedure
- Compared retrospective recall to real time
- Peak & end were biggest predictors of recalled pain
51
Q
Summary - Our memory Systems are prone to error
A
Misinformation Effect describes what happens when information gathered after an event can alter your memory later
52
Q
False Memory Summary
A
- Can be created by inserting made up information into remembered events
- Suggestion can also do this
53
Q
Eye Witness Testimony Summary
A
- Eyewitness testimony prone to errors due to:
- Perception & Attention
- Familiarity with the event
- Suggestion by interviewers
54
Q
Autobiographical memories can be evoked by sensory stimuli like smell and is automatic
A
Painful Memories are based on a peak and end theory
55
Q
Reminiscence Bump
A
- Significant events from a person’s life are easier to remember
- Important life events often occur between 10-30yrs and that is where the Bump occurs
- These important events shape identity and that is why the bump occurs at formative times in one’s life
56
Q
Fundamental Cognitive Error
A
- Our brains make interpretations of how we see the world
- We are not consciously doing this
- We don’t notice when memories are being shaped by perception
- We are not aware when we misremember events
57
Q
Pragmatic Inference
A
- We fill in language based on what makes sense in context.
- This can interfere of our actual memories
58
Q
MPI
A
Misleading Post-event Information
59
Q
Penny Study
A
- Nickerson & Adams 1979
- Asked Americans go recall what was on a US Penny
- Memory was poor 2-3 features
- Most people could not recall a real coin from spread of fakes
- We have poor memory of common things
60
Q
False Memories
A
Loftus & Palmer 1979
Subjects watched car crash
Influenced by the severity of a descriptive word when estimating speed of car
e.g. How fast wer the cars going when they hit/smashed/collided/bumped each other?
