Water - EQ3 - 5.8 Flashcards
define water poverty
- a situation where a nation or region cannot always afford the cost of sustaianble clean water to people at all times
define physical water scarcity
- the lack of available clean freshwater resources (surface & groundwater) as in semi-arid climates
Physical water scarcity also occurs when…
- more than 75% of a country or region’s bluewater flows are being withdrawn for human uses
…..% of the global population cuurently experiences physical water scarcity
25%
Whichc ountries & regions experience physical water scarcity
- Middle East, North Africa,
- North China, West USA, South East Australia
define economic water scarcity
- when the use of blu ewater resources is imited by the lack of capital, technological & good governance
It is estimated that …. billion people are restricted from accessing blue water from …….
- 1 billion
- high levels of poverty
why might economic water scarcity occur
- it might cost too much for people to afford
- cleaning dirty water may be too epnsive
- this typically occurs in LICs who lack reliable salination infrastructure
- e.g Continental & SE Asia
Give some possible causes of water scarcity
- lack of annual or seasonal precipitation
- lack of investment & managemnt of water infrastructure to meet demand
- scarcity may also be a social construct duet to wealth, expectation or unusual behaviour
Why is water supplies not equitablly distributed
- although access to safe, potable water is a human right, it is treated as a commodity to be paid for
- the majority of water supplies are controlled & costs vary greatly, within & between countries
What is the expectation of water in high developed countries
- people expect to pay for their water supply, its removal & subsequent treatment
Issues of water pricing in LDEs
What can happen despite water being free
- it may not be fully clean
- & people often have to spend many hours walking up to 10km to get water supplies,
- disadvantaging women & girls daily
Issues of water pricing in LDEs
If people do have access to safe water it is often…
the case that the cost is beyond most people
Issues of water pricing in LDEs
What happens when people cannot afford the price of water
- charities such as WaterAid
- provided inavulable help via programmes
Issues of water pricing in LDEs
The majority of people rely on ….
vendors
Give a real exmple of how the cost of water disadavnatges poeple in developed vs developing natiosn
- Whilst the cost of water in the UK may only a take a small proportion of people’s salaries, it represents 20-25% of their daily income for the very poor, it is unaffordable
Supply vs Demand
If a resource is scarce it becomes………, depending on whether water … meets ….. demand
- expensive
- supply
- demand
Supply vs Demand
what does the price of water depend on
- human & physical factors, on various timescales
Supply vs Demand
what is the frustration of physical factors
- Some physical supplyside features cannot be controlled e.g rainfall
Supply vs Demand
what human interference can unknowingly reduce supply
- poor management of water supplies tend to reduce supply
- e.g by polluting or depleting (cloud seeding)
Supply vs Demand
how can demand be reduced
- by encouraging conservation & charging a realistic price for water
Supply vs Demand
what leads to a rise in cost of water
- any rise ind emand will also rise costs as water comapnies invest in production, treatment & infrastructure
- many private companie shave stakeholders to answer to, with profits being a requirment for future investment
In some countries there is only one water company, which leads to…
- a monopoly on supplying water & therefore they can charge what they want
Explain how NGOs intereferred in nationalised water
- During the 1980s, the wolrd bank & IMF gave loans that required many developing countries to privatise their water systems in the hope that competition would reduce cost
what do monopolies do to water supplies
- consumers end up having to pay signficantly higher charges for water supplies
Negative example of water privatisation
What happended in 1999 in Boliivia
- Agua del Tumari took over the Blovian city of Cochamba’s water system
Negative example of water privatisation
What did the Agua del Tumari do when they took over the Blovian city of Cochamba’s water system
- company immediately raised price of water supplies to 20% of the average income
Negative example of water privatisation
How did people react in Bolivia to the raised price of water supplies to 20% of the average income
poor people protested for 4 days & teh Bolivian govt overturned this
Positive example of water privatisation
Why did the government in Denmark decide to raise water prices?
In an attempt to reduce unnecessary water consumption.
Positive example of water privatisation
How much did the price of water rise in Denmark between 1989 and 2012?
The price rose from €2 to €7 per metre cubed.
Positive example of water privatisation
What were the needs behind the increased water price in Denmark?
- Supply of water: 22% of cost
- Sewage and wastewater treatment: 47% of cost
- Taxes: 31% of cost
Positive example of water privatisation
What was the impact of the increased water price on water consumption in Denmark from 1989 to 2012?
- significant drop in water consumption
- 1989 - avg of 170 litres per day
- 2012 - avg of 114 litres per day in
What is the Water Poverty Index (WPI)?
The WPI was developed by a team of researchers to monitor progress towards the millennium development targets
It is a holistic water management tool mainly relevant at the community level
but can be applied at any spatial scale up to the basin or national levels
What is the main purpose of the Water Poverty Index (WPI)?
- The WPI is mainly designed to help improve the situation for the one to two billion people facing poor natural water resources and poor adaptive capacity.
What does the Water Resources measure show in the Water Poverty Index (WPI)?
the physical availability of surface and ground water and its quality.
What does the Access to Water measure show in the Water Poverty Index (WPI)?
the distance from safe water for drinking, cooking, irrigation, and industrial uses.
What does the Capacity measure show in the Water Poverty Index (WPI)?
the effectiveness of people’s ability to manage water, ensure its affordability, and maintain good infrastructure.
What does the Use of Water measure show in the Water Poverty Index (WPI)?
the ways in which water is used for different purposes, including domestic, agricultural, and industrial use.
What does the Environment measure show in the Water Poverty Index (WPI)?
water management strategies to ensure ecological sustainability.
What are the 5 measures used by the Water Poverty Index (WPI) to indicate levels of wtaer security
- Water Resources
- Access to Water
- Capacity
- Use of Water
- Environment
At what levels can the Water Poverty Index (WPI) be applied?
- The WPI can be applied at any spatial scale, from community level to basin or national levels.
define ecological
- relating to or concerned with the relation of living organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings.
Why is the WPI useful
- Easy to calculate
- Cost effective to implement
- Based mostly on existing data
- A transparent process
- Easy to understand
What is the limitation of the WPI
- It has not been updated since 2005, which limits its ability to reflect current water security challenges and incorporate recent data and developments
Define peak water
- Some ‘extreme risk’ nations in dryland areas have, in a sense, already reached ‘peak water’.
- It is a concept that originates from Peak Oil 1950’s.
- They use well over 100% of their total annual renewable water supply
Peak water is a key concept which…
- underlines the growing constraints on the availability, quality, and use offreshwaterresources
What did Lester Brown say
- Lester R. Brown, president of theEarth Policy Institute, wrote in 2013 that although there was extensive literature onpeak oil, it was peak water that is “the real threat to our future”
Why is what Lester Brown said signficant
- although there is a vast amount of water on the planet,sustainablymanaged water is becoming scarce
Explain why water is important for human wellbeing
- health - clean drinking wtaer avoids disease & increases life expectancy
- cleanliness - improves social dignity
- food - avoids malnutrition stabilising the food chain
- ecosystems - maintain environmental health so services & resources are available
- human rights - disadvanatged groups require safe drinking water & sanitation
What do the Helsinki/Berlin Rules regulate?
They are international guidelines regulating how rivers and their connected ground waters that cross national boundaries may be used.
When and where were the Helsinki Rules adopted?
Adopted by the International Law Association (ILA) in Helsinki, Finland in August 1966.
Was there an enforcement mechanism for the Helsinki Rules?
No, there is no mechanism in place by which the rules can be enforced, but it was pioneering.
What did the Helsinki Rules lead to?
The creation of the United Nations’ Convention on the Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses.
What happened to the Helsinki Rules in 2004?
- In 2004, they were superseded by the Berlin Rules on Water Resources.
What does the United Nations’ Convention on the Law of Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses. do
In 2014, produced rules for equitable and reasonable use of water without harming neighbouring countries
What is the difficulty of adhering to the Helsinki accords
- These rules are difficult to implement, especially in transboundary situations; since the 1960s,
- 150 treaties have been signed but there have been
- 37 violent disputes.
Give examples of the 9 prinnciples of the Berlin rules
- river basins managed in an integrated way
- long-term planning of needs
- minimising environmental damage
- cooperation of countries or regions
- everyone receiving their fair share
What is the Berlin Water Framework Directive & Hydropower
- a European initiative consisting of 9 water management principles, enshrined in international law
As the demand fir water overtakes supplies, there is potential for ….
conflict or waterwars
What does conflict for water arise from
competing demands of irrigation, energy, industrial, domestic & recreational uses
The bulk of internal conflcits are usually ……-related
agricultural
give a case study example of agriculture related water conflicts
- Sahel, Africa - clashes of herdsmen & farmers over scarce supplies of water needed for both animals & crops
How do many riverbanks decided ownership
- ripararian rights
What can elevate ‘normal’ water competition
- when countries ‘share’ the same river or drainage basi, as in rhe case of transboundary river sources, the ‘normal competition’ for water can be escaleted to international or open conflict
Describe how less water conflict is occurring
- although there have been rising tensions globally,
- many areas demonstrate effective management to diffuse the situation
- & create more equitable and sustainable demand-supply balance, such as the Mekong
who are the key stakeholders at a local scale of water conflicts
- the water users:
- farmers
- industrialists
- households
whose vies can clash with the users of water sources
- planners
- environmentalists
- water providers
Who are the international stakeholders in water conflicts
- governments
- users of transboundary water sources
- in some cases, mediating services such as UN agencies
What type of conflict is the Middle East Nile Basin conflict
a more positive dispute where dialogue and debate is so far diverting conflict, but it could get worse
What type of conflict is the Middle East River Jordan conflict
a complex geopolitical situation where disputes over territory have already led to fighting, water is one of many aspects that have led to conflict
What type of conflict is the California Colardo river conflict
internal water dispute where the conflict is between different key players but has come to a resolution.
economic development is one of the drivers for…
the increased demand for safewater supplies
Importance of Water Supply - agriculture
what dominates water usage
Importance of Water Supply - agricullture
….% of the easrth’s land is fully irrigated, of which ….% comes from dams & their resptive irrigation channels
- 20%
- 30%
Importance of Water Supply - agriculture
Where is the majority of irrigation water pumped directly from
- aquifers
Importance of Water Supply - agricullture
What is abstraction from aquifers leading to
- massive groundwater depletion,
- especially in China, Inida, Pakistan & the USA,
- which are areas with unsustainable food production & water consumption - irrigating with the sole motivation to increase yields
Importance of Water Supply - agriculture
what is a major consequence of irrigation for oceans
- groundwater irrigation eventually depletes into the world’s oceans & contributes to sea level rise
Importance of Water Supply - agricullture
What is the percentile causes of sea level rise
- 50% thermal expansion
- 25% melting glaciers
- 25% groundwater depletion
Importance of Water Supply - agriculture
IPCC estimate that groundwater depltion accounts for ….. of sea level rise annually
0.8mm
Importance of Water Supply - Industry & Energy
…..% of global freshwater is for industrial &/or energy production
20%
Importance of Water Supply - Industry & Energy
Of the 20% of global freshwater is for industrial &/or energy production, how much is used for generating energy as HEP or cooling thermal & nuclear power stations
50%
Importance of Water Supply - Industry & Energy
Water used for used for generating energy as HEP or cooling thermal & nuclear power stations is returned to its source…
virtually unchanged
Importance of Water Supply - Industry & Energy
which industries are major consumers of water
chemicals, paper, electronics, petroleum, steel
Importance of Water Supply - Industry & Energy
what are rising concerns about renewable fuels with water usage
increase in biofuels to produce bioethanol & biodiesel - very water intensive
Importance of Water Supply - Industry & Energy
what is a major concern in LDEs & EMEs
- water pollution, & it’s limited, ignored or nonexistent policies
Importance of Water Supply - domestic use
Why can water, particularly polluted by lack of sanitation, be dangerous for human health?
- Water polluted by lack of sanitation is an effective medium for the breeding and transmission of lethal diseases such as typhoid, cholera, and dysentery.
What diseases can be transmitted through polluted water?
typhoid, cholera, and dysentery
What makes water a prosperous base for vectors?
- Water is also a productive breeding ground for some disease vectors, such as mosquitoes, snails and parasitic worms.
- Malaria, dengue and bilharzia are dehabilitating vector diseases.
What environmental risks are associated with an inadequate water supply?
- An inadequate water supply can prolong periods of drought and initiate the steps to desertification
As water supply decreases, tensions will ………… as different players try to access common water supplies
Many conflicts are ………. in nature, either between states or countries
increase
transboundary
What types of water supplies can be trans-boundary?
- Trans-boundary water supplies can be both rivers and groundwater
How does the UN define ‘transboundary’?
The UN defines ‘transboundary’ as meaning shared across an international border.
Can ‘boundary’ refer to political boundaries other than international borders?
- A ‘boundary’ can refer to any political boundary, such as between US states, but it should be clearly stated.
Exemplify how transboundary borders can prove to be a source of cooperation rather than conflict
450 agreements on International Waters signed between 1820 & 2007
UN estimates that …% of the world’s population depend on transboundary supplies, & in over ….. of these situations there is no international agreement
- 40%
- 1/2
The Blue and White Nile provide Egypt ………..% of its water, so most is coming from other ……………..
- 95%
- countries
Name a few countries which are in the Nile Basin
- Burundi
- D.R.Congo
- Egypt
- Eritrea
- Ethiopia
- Kenya
- Rwanda
- Sudan
- Tanzania
- Uganda
What are the growing problems for all countries in the Nile Basin
- All have rising population
- & want to irrigate their agriculture to help feed the population and develop
- Growing issues of desertification & salination & increased evaporation linked to climate change
What is the religious significance of the Egypt river
- Nearly all the cultural and historical sites ofAncient Egyptdeveloped and are found along river banks
What are some famous dam megaprojects?
The Aswan High Dam in Egypt is one of the famous dam megaprojects.
What is ‘Tecconile’?
‘Tecconile’ is a joint GIS system developed in the 1990s to help monitor and plan the Nile basin.
What is the scale of the Nile River
- The Nile is the world’s longest river , 6,500kms, 2.9km2 catchment, 10% of Africa
What is the continental reliance on the Nile throughout Africa
- running through 10 countries with 360 million people depending on it for survival
About …. % water originates from Eritrea and Ethiopia, but …. % is used by Sudan and Egypt.
.
About 85 % water originates from Eritrea and Ethiopia, but ** 94** % is used by Sudan and Egypt.
The Nile Basin spans …….. transboundaries
- international
Evidence of more effective co-operation along the Nile
What is the Nile Basin Initiative?
The Nile Basin Initiative is a system of cooperative management that started in the late 1990s.
Evidence of more effective co-operation along the Nile
what are all but 1 countries doing to support the nile
- All countries except Eritrea are working with The World Bank and bi-lateral aid donors
Evidence of more effective co-operation along the Nile
What level of involvement is there in the management of the Nile Basin?
There is community-level involvement in the cooperative management of the Nile Basin.
Evidence of more effective co-operation along the Nile
Why did managers visit the Colorado River recently?
- Managers visited the Colorado River to see how effectively the 1922 River Water Compact and its ‘law of the river’ works.
History of Hydro politics in Nile Basin
tensions due to the dominance of……
tensions due to the dominance of Egypt
History of Hydro politics in Nile Basin
where have there been civil wars
Sudan & Ethiopia
History of Hydro politics in Nile Basin
Describe the 1929 Nile Water treaty
Egypt & Sudan given rights to nearly all the Nile water
History of Hydro politics in Nile Basin
Describe the 1999 Nile Water treaty & 2010
- Nile Basin Initiative - Egypt & Sudan stringly opposed over fears it would significantly reduce their water supplies
- similar opposition to new agreement in 2010
History of Hydro politics in Nile Basin
what signficant development occurred in 2015
- a separate agreement was reaxhed between Ethipia, Sudan & Egypt, which enabled Ethipia to start building the Grand Ethipian Renaissance Dam
History of Hydro politics in Nile Basin
what signficant development occurred in 2015
- cost $5 billion
- largest hydropower project in Africa
History of Hydro politics in Nile Basin
What is the recent development along the Nile
- Countries upstream have recently been pushing forammendements that would allow them to build dams, just as Egypt has done, to help their water supply & generate HEP for economic development
History of Hydro politics in Nile Basin
Why is future conflict likely
there is no modern agreement between all Nile countries
4 problems along the Nile River
What do all countries along the river have in common
- all counries within the basin have rising populations
- & want to irrigate their agriculture to using the Nile to aid the development of their populations
4 problems along the Nile River
The river is particularly important to Egypt and Sudan. Why?
- it is their primary water source
- Egypt depends on the Nile for 95% of its water needs
4 problems along the Nile River
why is the river growing importance for basin countries
- The river is an increasingly valuable resource for these countries
- providing water for domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes
- & is under increasing pressure from rapid population growth, economic development and climate change
4 problems along the Nile River
climate?
- Much of the river and its tributaries (Blue Nile and White Nile) flow through semi-arid (Sahel) and arid (Sahara) areas,
- meaning other water resources are scarce.
What is the conflict status of the Nile
- has not yet turned violent, but definitely could despite several attempts at peaceful agrrements & convesrations
Where is the soucre of the river Jordan
- anti-lebanon mountains
where is the mouth of the river jordan
- the dead sea
what is the length of the river jordan
- spreads a width of 15 miles, covers 223 miles due to its winding course
The river jordan spans an ……………. transboundary
- international
what is the climate like along the river jordan
- arid
- golan heights & the Nahal de arara mountains generate relief rainfall
- this then collects in the rivers jordan & yarmouk & in the aquifers
Golan heights as the lowest ………….. of any river in the world
elevation
what is the signifance of the river jordan
- historically & religiously significant - hebrew & christian bibles constantly reference this
River Jordan
Why is golan heights a key point of conflict - syria
- The heights give Israel an excellent vantage point for monitoring Syrian movements
- The topography provides a natural buffer against any military thrust from Syria
River Jordan
Why is golan heights a key point of conflict - water
- The area is also a key source of water for an arid region
- Rainwater from the Golan’s catchment feeds into the Jordan River
- The area provides a third of Israel’s water supply
- ecosystems are in decline due to diverted water for riparian states - acute water scarcity
- cc - droughts longer & deeper
River Jordan
Why is golan heights a key point of conflict - land use
- The land is fertile, with the volcanic soil being used to cultivate vineyards and orchards and to raise cattle
- The Golan is also home to Israel’s only ski resort
When did the first modern water war occur, and what was it about?
- The first modern water war occurred in 1964
- when Israel took the water of the River Jordan by damming it as it flowed from the Golan Heights, creating the National Water Carrier.
What was a major problem with Israel’s damming of the River Jordan in 1964?
The major problem was that it was done without the agreement of Syria or Jordan.
Why is resolving the conflict over the River Jordan difficult?
- The geopolitical tension and religious elements make it extremely difficult to resolve the conflict,
- and the area has been plagued by conflict for decades with deep-rooted hatred on both sides.
What happened during 1967 in relation to the River Jordan?
- In the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel gained land from Jordan (West Bank), Syria (Golan Heights), and Egypt (Gaza Strip) after Syria attempted to divert the River Jordan.
- Water was a major issue as Israel’s control of the Jordan basin increased significantly.
What has been the outcome of numerous treaties to resolve disputes over the River Jordan since 1967?
- Despite numerous treaties, there has been no success in resolving the disputes
what is the conflict status of the river jordan
violence in the past & risk of this again
where is the source and mouth of the colorado river
- Its source is in the Rocky Mountains north-west of Denver and it flows south-westwards to the Pacific Ocean via Mexico.
length of colorado river?
2330km
is the colorado river transboundary
yes, flows between the United States and Mexico
what states does the colorado river pass through
- 7 states in the western United States:
- Upper Basin: Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming
- Lower Basin: Arizona, California, and Nevada
problems along the colorado river
what were initial supplies based on and why is this an issue
- an abnormally wet period
- this means substantially less water is available than amounts specfied in agreements
problems along the colorado river
how will cc disrupt the river
- climate change is expected to increase river flow from 5,000 to 20,000 m^3/s, via greater precipitation
- however greater warming will offset this as a natural dam has been created, with water upstream being evaporated
signficance of the colorado river?
- one of the world’s most developed & regulated river systems
- an essential water source in an arid region
History of the Colorado river
In the 1800s, the river flow was …., then the US….
over 1,200 m^3/s, then the US began taking control of the Colorado & turning a desert into an agricultural heartland
History of the Colorado river
what did the US do in 1901
- US built the Alamo Canal through Mexico, which diverted river water to farmland in California’s Imperial Valley
History of the Colorado river
What happened in Mexico in 1901
- Across the border ambitious American business men, aided by corrupt Mexican offcials took control of the basin & arable land
History of the Colorado river
what happened in 1936
- construction of the Hoover Dam reduced the river flow in Mexico to 164 m^3/s
History of the Colorado river
what happened in 1966
- Glenn canyon dam built - river flow in Mexico plummetted to 8.3 m^3/s
History of the Colorado river
what happened in the 1980s
- 80% of the Delta’s forests & wetlands were lost, the estuary was partly destroyed
- birds & indigenous communities migrating
History of the Colorado river
what signficant thing has not happened on the river since 1998
- the river has not flown to the sea since 1998
- apart from a few days in 2014 during an ecological experiment that stimulated spring floods, which aided natural germination
History of the Colorado river
what is the current river flow
0.5m^3/s
what coudl help restore the river’s estuary & wetlands
another pulse flow
Water agreements
what happened in 1922
- Colorado River Compact, which is in alignment with principleso fHlesinki water accords
Water agreements
what is the 1922 colorado river compact
- aimed to rpomote interstate cooperation, removig causes of future controversies
- e.g upper basin states agrred not to deplete the rivers flow
Water agreements
what are the current goals for the colorado river
to reach a consensus by August 2026
Water agreements
what was established in 2001
- Interim Surplus Guidelines were established to manage surplus water
what is the conflict status - explain trying to reach agreements
- efforts are ongoing to update & adapt the agreements to address these issues & ensure sustaianble water management for the future
what is the conflict status - explain rising tensions
- tensions are continuing to rise along the basin states due to climate change side effects
- no violent conflicts have arisen, but negotations on reductions of water usage have been contentious - indigenous tribes involved
Give an economic consequence of damming the Nile
- economic losses of Egptian agriculture could be up to $51 billion
Give a military consequence of damming the Nile
- Egyptian renaissance dam led to ‘Guardians of the Nile’ - a joint war exerciise by Sudan & Egypt in May 2021
Give a social consequence of damming the Nile
- displacement of people
