Coasts - EQ4 - How can coastlines be managed to meet the needs of all players? Flashcards
1
Q
economic impacts of coastal flooding can include…
A
loss of property in the form of homes, businesses & farmland
2
Q
economic impacts of coastal flooding are ………….. to quantify
A
relatively easy
3
Q
Economic burdens tend to fall on ……………, but there is still a considerable burden for …………………………….
A
governments & NGOs
individuals & families
4
Q
In the UK, the government does not ………………. to people who lose their homes to coastal erosion
A
provide compensation
5
Q
In developing countries, poverty means that rebuilding homes may….
A
cost people a large proportion of their income
6
Q
what is meant by a social cost of coastal flooding
A
- social cost are those that directly affect people themselves
- such as losing a family member
- or having to relocate temporarily or permanently
7
Q
Social costs are difficult to …..
A
quantify
8
Q
define amenity value
A
- the value in cultural, human well-being & economic terms of an attractive environment people enjoy using
9
Q
give examples of economic loses and loses in amenity value if areas become unattractive & depopulated
A
e.g abandoned buildings, damaged roads, rerouted footpaths, loss of access to beach
10
Q
what is a climate change refugee
A
- someone seeking safety in another country due to natural processes
- including sudden ones such as landslides
- or gradual ones such as erosion or rising sea levels
- can be across borders, or within a country
11
Q
Give an example of internal climate change refugees in the Philippines
A
- For example, between 2008 and 2013
- the Philippines had the 3rd largest number of internally displaced people due to natural hazards
- with their displacements totalling 6.8 million people in 2013
12
Q
Name 2 examples of countries with climate change refugees
A
Kiribati & Tuvalu
13
Q
Why are sea levels rising in Tuvalu
A
isostatic change means their island is sinking
14
Q
Tuvalu is the first nation ever to face…
A
total annihilation in 20-30 years
15
Q
Tuvalu’s population of ……… will need to be …….
A
11,000
relocated
16
Q
Describe the social impacts of isostatic sea level rise
A
- water resources contaminated by seawater
- food crops (subsistence farming) being destroyed
17
Q
Geopolitics means that Tuvalu isn’t…
A
being internationally recognised or prioritised
18
Q
More than ….. of Australia’s coasts are vulnerable to erosion & retreat due to sea level rise
A
1/2
19
Q
Economic impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
cost of property threatened
A
- a 1m sea level rise will expose more than US$162 billion,
- in industrial, commercial, transport & infrastructure ,
- to coastal flooding & erosion
20
Q
Economic impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
knock on effect impacts
A
- every minor increase in sea level can have major impacts
- e.g a 0.2m rise in sea level = damages of $1.4billion
21
Q
Economic impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
defences
A
expenditure on beach nourishment could increase by as such as $39billion a year
22
Q
Economic impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
tourism
A
tourism industry employs 8% of the workforce & utilises the sandy beaches on the Gold Coast which could be eroded
23
Q
Social impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
amenities
A
- amenity value lost
- e.g the Great Barrier Reef’s destruction, will decline tourism, and then less investment
24
Q
Environmental impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
groundwater
A
-groundwater supplies may be contaminated by salt intrusion
25
Environmental impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
ecosystems
sea level rise will also push seawater further up estuaries, affecting natural ecosystems like freshwater habitats
26
Environmental impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
coral
* coral reefs may be unable to grow fast enough to keep up with sea level rise
* those more than 50m deep will die
27
Explain a cause of coastal flooding in the Philippines
sea level rise
* the rate of sea level rise is around 5.8mm a year
* which is higher than the global average
* because the Pacific Oceans' currents & trade winds move water towards the islands
28
Explain a cause of coastal flooding in the Philippines
population
* Many coastal communities & cities in the Philippines have growing populations,
* which pollute & over-exploit mangroves, coral & sea grass
* which greatly reduces their ability to protect the backshore from sea level rise
29
Economic Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
predicted losses of .............. a year without adaptation costs
$6.5 billion
30
Economic Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
fishing industry
* Due to high unemployment, alternative jobs to fishing are difficult to find,
* so when sea levels rise, & fishing becomes more difficult,
* there will be an estimated welfare loss to local communities of $186 per year
31
Economic Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
coastal defences
riprap costs up to $21,000 to implement in each location
32
Economic Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
property losses of .......
$2.5 million
33
Social Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
submergence of cities
* parts of the urban areas around Manila, would be flooded by 2100
* affecting 2.3 million people
34
Social Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
By 2100, ..... buildings will be lost & ............ of beach
300
123,000
35
Social Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
amenity
amenity loses of schools, churches & beach
36
Environmental Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
mangroves, coral & sea grass have all been polluted & overexploited
37
What are the 4 coastal management strategies
* No active intervention
* managed retreat/ realignment
* hold the line
* advance the line
38
Explain the coastal management strategy --> No active intervention
* allows natural processes to takeover, so the coast erodes landwards or floods
* no investment in defending against flooding or erosion, whther or not coastal defences have existed previously
39
Explain the coastal management strategy --> Managed realignment
* allows the coastline to move naturally (in most cases to recede)
* but managing the process to direct it in certain areas
40
Explain the coastal management strategy --> hold the line
* requires the construction of a range of coastal engingeering solutions
* so that the position of the shoreline remains the same overtime
41
Explain the coastal management strategy --> Advance the line
* builds new coastal defences on the seaward side of the existing coastline
* usually involves land reclaimation
42
Synopsis of hard engineering techniques
-characteristics
* high tech
* high cost
* man-made solutions
43
Synopsis of hard engineering techniques
-relation with nature
they directly work against nature to reduce erosion
44
Synopsis of hard engineering techniques
-sustainability
-sustainability is a key issue, despite their initial signs of success
45
Synopsis of soft engineering techniques
-characteristics
* low tech
* low cost
* less effective than hard engineering
46
Synopsis of soft engineering techniques
-relation with nature
solutions working with nature to reduce erosion
47
Synopsis of soft engineering techniques
-sustainability
more sustainable as they consider the environment
48
Before a coastal management project is given the go ahead, a ___________________ is carried out
cost-benefit analysis
49
what takes place in a cost-benefit analysis
costs are forecast & then compared with the expected benefits
50
what are the two types of costs & benefits
tangible & intangible
51
what is a tangible cost/benefit
where costs & benefits are known & can be given a £ value
52
what is an intangible cost/benefit
where costs may be difficult to assess but are important (e.g the visual impact of the coast)
53
Name 6 hard engineering technqiues
* groynes
* sea walls
* rip-rap
* revetements
* offshore breakwaters
* gabions
54
Name 5 soft engineering techniques
* beach nourishment
* cliff regrading
* cliff drainage
* dune stabilisation
* managed retreat
55
# hard engineering
what are groynes
* commonly wooden walls on a beach at right angles to the coast, to slow down LSD movement
56
# hard engineering
groynes may be......or....., depending on,.....
Groynes may be **open** or **closed** depending on, **how much beach sediment engineers wish to trap**
57
# hard engineering
what do groynes aim to do
* to make a beach wider & higher
* so that waves expend their wave energy on it rather than on the backshore
58
# hard engineering
what are the advantages of groynes
* maintain the size of a beach
* enhance the beach for recreational activity
59
# hard engineering
what are the disadvantages of groynes
* expensive (about £1000 per linear m)
* may be barrier to free movement along a beach
* unsightly
* can cause terminal groyne syndrome
60
# hard engineering
sea walls often...
* appear in different shapes parallel to the backshore
61
# hard engineering
how do recurved sea walls work
use the shape of a wave to direct the water into the following wave, so reducing wave energy
62
# hard engineering
how do stepped sea walls work
use the pointed edges to break up a wave as it hits the wall, so wave energy is dissipated
63
# hard engineering
what are the advantages of sea walls
* made of durable concrete to absorb wave energy
* give people confidence & a sense of security
64
# hard engineering
what are the disadvantages of sea walls
* most expensive of all sea defences (about £5000 per linear m)
* unsightly & unnatural
* greatly reduced the supply of sediments, which may affect other coastal areas nearby
65
# hard engineering
what is rip rap
boulders (usually granite) or especially designed concrete shapes (tetrahedrons)
66
# hard engineering
how does rip rap defend the coast
* rip rap is resistant to erosion & has a large surface area,
* that breaks up waves, dissipating their energy
67
# hard engineering
rip rap can also be used to....
hold back mass movement on an unstable cliff
68
# hard engineering
what is an advantage of rip rap
* can be placed at susceptible points on the backshore, to protect the base of the sea wall
* long lasting
69
# hard engineering
what are the disadvantages of rip rap
* seawater may still move through it, so some weathering & erosion may occur on the backshore
* can contrast with local geology
70
# hard engineering
what are revetments
* sloped walls often made of wood
* placed parallel to the backshore
* but a short distance in front of it
71
# hard engineering
how do revetments work
* they are able to take the force of breaking waves,
* so they weaken their erosive strength & protect the backshore
72
# hard engineering
what are the advantages of revetments
* trap beach sediments behind them, reducing its removal by backwash or LSD (LSD can continue)
* slightly cheaper than sea walls
73
# hard engineering
what are the disadvantages of revetments
* require constant maintenance as the wood can be abraded by powerful waves
* look unsightly, especially if they stretch several kilometres along a coast
74
# hard engineering
what are offshore breakwaters
* rock boulders (usually granite) which are dropped & aligned
* in short lengths in shallow nearshore waters
* parallel to the shore
75
# hard engineering
how do offshore breakwaters work
* their purpose is to absorb wave energy & disspate waves
* before they have a chance to damage the foreshore or the backshore,
* they allows LSD to continue behind them
76
# hard engineering
what are the advantages of offshore breakwaters
* create sheltered areas for recreation & tourism
* can be used to protect the entrance to harbours, creating calmer waters for safe entry or exit
77
# hard engineering
what are the disadvantages of offshore breakwaters
* can cost between £1-2 million
* may increase deposition on the landward side, reducing LSD
* may need other coastal engineering to complement them e.g sea walls in gaps
78
# hard engineering
what are gabions
* these are pebbles in wire baskets,
* which when tied together make a wall
* where the great surface area absorbs wave energy & breaks up waves
79
# hard engineering
what are the advantages of gabions
* flexible in terms of the placement, so can act as an additional defence above a sea wall or to hold back mass movement
* relatively cheap & easy to maintain
80
# hard engineering
what are the disadvantages of gabions
-not very strong, not suitable for high energy locations
81
# soft engineering
what is beach nourishment
replaces beach sediment that may have been eroded or transported by LSD
82
# soft engineering
how does beach nourishment work
a large beach will absorb wave energy & protect the backshore from erosion
83
# soft engineering
what are the advantages of beach nourishment
-uses natural sediments, so the beach looks natural, providing amenity value for recreation and tourism
84
# soft engineering
what are the disadvantages of beach nourishment
* doesn't last long, needs to be frequently replaced, especially under winter storms conditions
* sediments may have been dredged from offshore, so changing sediment cell balances & deepening the water, so that waves may approach the shore withmuch more destructive energy
85
# soft engineering
what is cliff degrading
* the lithology of a cliff may be unstable & prone to sudden collapse,
* so to remove this uncertainty engineers calculate a stable slope angle based on the rock characteristics
* the cliff slope is then artificially back to the stable angle
86
# soft engineering
what are the advantages of cliff degrading
* brings some uncertainty & confidence to propery owners close to the cliff edge
* & reduces risk of sudden loss of property
87
# soft engineering
what are the disadvantages of cliff degrading
* cost about £1million
* engineers may get their calculations wrong, or extreme natural conditions may overwhem their changes
* stabilisation measures such as cliff drainage & vegetation planting is also needed
88
# soft engineering
where can cliff drainage be implemented
* where the cliff lithology consists of a permeable layer above the impermeable layer,
* it may be unstable after rainfall due to poor pressure
89
# soft engineering
how does cliff drainage work
* to reduce this pressure & reduce mass movement,
* drains with gravel can be inserted into the cliffs to drain water out quickly
90
# soft engineering
what are the advantages of cliff drainage
-looks natural once completed, as engineering is not generally visible
-reduces mass movement, bringing confidence to residents
91
# soft engineering
what are the disadvantages of cliff drainage
-will not prevent mass movement, only reduces it to some extent
92
# soft engineering
dunes can provide...
dunes can provide **a natural barrier to sea level rise & storm waves, but are fragile**
93
# soft engineering
what are the advantages of dune stabilisation
-provide natural ecosystems
-effective barrier to higher sea levels & tides
94
# soft engineering
what are the disadvantages of dune stabilisation
amenity value may be reduced during the short term in maintenance/work
95
# soft engineering
what is managed retreat
* where it is accepted that there is little that can be done to stop high sea levels changing the coast,
* areas can be allowed for the sea to flood or erode
96
# soft engineering
give examples of how managed retreat can operate
* fomer salt marshes that are now farmland may be allowed to flood again
* buffer zones next to eroding cliffs can be created so that no valuable property is lost
97
# soft engineering
advantages of managed retreat
-can extend current ecosystems
98
# soft engineering
disadvantages of managed retreat
* does not prevent land being lost & may only be a medium-term solution, depending on the rate of sea level rise
99
define sustainability
meeting the needs of the present without compromising the needs of the future
100
what is meant by futurity
* has the plan considered possible changes in the future such as climate change
* what long term planning has taken place
101
Sustainable Management is a _____-term approach that considers...
long
future threats such as sea level rise & storm surges
102
how might sustainable management cause conflict
when the wishes of local people who may lose their land, home, job & sense of community & feel that there is no social justice
103
In the past, how was coastal management carried out
* it had been the job of local councils
* sea defences were built in isolation with no consideration of how defences in one place might affect others, leading to problems & conflict
104
Today, how is coastal management carried out
* coasts are managed in a more holistic way using Intergrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
105
How many sediment cells are there around the coast of England & Wales as the basis for Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs)
11
106
Each sediment cell is broken into ....... & SMPs devise plans that apply to...
1. small sub-cells
2. the whole stretch of the coast within a cell
107
What are the good qualities of Intergrated Coastal Zone Management
* complete sections of coasts are being protected as a whole - rather than individuals villages & towns
* considers much larger sections of the coast
* its a process that brings together all of those involved in the development, management & use of the coast
108
What 5 things does Intergrated Coastal Zone Management include
* Balance between:
* coastal zone development, so the utilsation of resources & potentials
* & ecosystem conservation, so human & natural threats
109
# What are the aims of ICZM
Bring together...
Bring together economic decision makers, such as tourism, fishing & ports & different government levels (inc international)
110
# What are the aims of ICZM
Emphasise...
Emphasise cooperation between all relevant stakeholders so that managemnt benefits everyone
111
# What are the aims of ICZM
Manage the entire...
Manage the entire coast including resources, human activity & the conservation of ecosystems
112
# What are the aims of ICZM
Recognise...
Recognise the importance of the coastal zone to people's livelihoods
113
# What are the aims of ICZM
Manage the coast...
Manage the coast sustainably - must improve QofL, be environmentally appropriate & equitable (benefitting everyone) & ensure the ability of future generations to use the coast
114
Explain the flow chart of Coastal Management
1. Intergrated Coastal Zone Management
2. Shoreline Management Plans
3. Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) & Environment Impact Assessment (EIA)
4. Hard & Soft engineering policy option
115
When was the idea for ICZMs first introduced
1992 Earth Summit
116
When were Shoreline Managment Plans first introduced
By DEFRA (Environment, Food & Rural Affairs in 1995
117
What are shoreline management plans
* an approach to coastal managment that involves all stakeholders in making decisions about how coastal erosion & coastal flood risk should be managed
118
What do shoreline management plans aim to balance
* economic, social & environmental needs & pressures
119
Before shoreline management plans, how were coasts managed
Often in a 'piecemeal' way, leading to problems & conflicts
120
# SMP1 vs. SMP2
What time period did SMP1s cover
1997 - 2003
121
Why were the limitations of the SMP1's management policies being practical or acceptable in the long term
-defences
* current defences may have a limited life & improvements may not be economically, socially, technically or environmentally practical
122
Why were the limitations of the SMP1's management policies being practical or acceptable in the long term
-sea level rise
* predictions of sea level rise due to climate change have increased dramatically since 1997, & need to be inccoporated into the second generation
123
SMP1s were criticsed for not...
'listening' to local people
124
When were SMP2s proposed
2004
125
What were the aims of SMP2
the aim of planning the managment of the UK coastline for 100 years; taking into account medium-term changes such as sea-level rise
126
What are the limitations of SMP2
-changes in policy
* Controversial in places where the policy changed from hold the line to no active intervention
127
What are the limitations of SMP2
-Local authorities started...
* Local authorities started using Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA),
* which affected property values & the security of communities
128
Give a location example of SMP2
The Tyne to Flamborough Head
129
What is being protected along the stretch of coast of Tyne to Flamborough Head
* large urban areas
* small coastal communities
* important habitats
* vary varied geology
130
How is The Tyne to Flamborough Head managed
* Seven council areas have to cooperate over the management of SMP2
* Scarborough Borough Council is the 'lead authority'
131
Explain what happens in a cost-benefit analysis
* carried out before a coastal managment projecct is given the go-ahead
* costs are forecast & then compared with the benefits
* e.g places with lowland value, such as farmland & recreational land, have difficulty qualifying for government mone to fund sea defences
132
What are the factors which can decide whether to defend a coast or not
* environmental sensitivity of land (e.g nature reserve)
* economic - enough money & land value
* political parties
* engineeering feasibility
* social value
133
List some of the key stakeholders along the coast
* tourists
* government
* resource companies
* DEFRA
* fishermen
* farmers
* business owners
* conservationalists
* residents
* local govt & MPs
* construction companies
* NGOs
134
What is meant by a 'winner' on the coast
* people who gain from a decision, either economically, environmentally or socially
135
What is meant by a 'loser' on the coast
* people who are likely to:
* lose property, their business or job
* be forced to move
* see the coastline be 'concreted' over & view this as an environmental negative
136
In the UK, farmland & isolated houses are likely to remain unprotected due to...
* lowland value
137
Why is coastal management more challenging in developing countries
* rapidly increasing population densities - more lives involved
* predominant job sectos in fishing & farming - not highly valued land
* tend not to have compensation packages for people whose property is threatened
* lack of government spending - funds spent on current, more pressing issues e.g disease
138
In SMP1, what policy decision of coastal management was used in Happisburgh
After failing to qualify for govt grants for coastal defences, campaigning managed to secure 'managed retreat' was used
139
In SMP2, what policy decision of coastal management was used in Happisburgh
* Since Happisburgh only has 1400 people and very few businesses, it is not eligible to have sea defences
* Coastal managers argue that Happisburgh must be seen in the wider context of the whole SMP, further justifying the decision not to defend the village - hold the line
140
Who are the winners in the coastal conflict at Happisburgh
-community protected
* There are plans for the local council to purchase farmland, on the landward side of the village, so the community remains the same size
141
what might future management strategy be for happisburgh
1. A hold the line policy applied to an area up to 2025 may become a managed realignment policy after 2025.
2. This is because by 2025 sea level rise is likely to have made 'hold the line' a much more expensive policy to apply.
142
Who are the winners in he coastal conflict at Happisburgh
-tourism
* Attempts to relocate the caravan park - protecting tourism
143
Who are the winners in the coastal conflict at Happisburgh
-campaigning
* Campaigning resulted in areas of the coastline inc Happisburgh receiving £3 million for coastal protection
* inwhich derelict coastal defences can be removed & relocation can be marginally funded
144
Who are the losers in the coastal conflict at Happisburgh
-homes
* The rollback strategy on Beach Road, to create a buffer, owners were merely offered half their properties value to relocate
* people cannot afford to relocate elsewhere
* many homes have been lost to the sea, & others demolished
145
Who are the losers in the coastal conflict at Happisburgh
-property value
* By 2105, the Shoreline may recede by 200m, £6 million in value of property losses
146
Who are the losers in the coastal conflict at Happisburgh
-tourism
* loss of access to beach & lifeboat access - concerns for tourism
147
What policy decision has been implemented in Chittagong, Bangladesh
* The Asian Development Bank,
* underwent a Coastal Climate Resilient Infrastructuure Project,
* with aims to 'climate proof' the area
148
Who are the winners in the coastal conflict at Chittagong, Bangladesh
-social impacts
* poverty alleviated by 10%, by generating income oppportunities
* people become trained & educated on climate resilience & adaptation measures
149
Who are the winners in the coastal conflict at Chittagong, Bangladesh
-protection
* people are better protected from constructing, improving or extending 25 topical cyclone shelters, taking account sea level rise & higher wind speeds
* food security & livelihood sprotected from new markets being built on platforms about the 2050 expected sea level
150
Who are the winners in the coastal conflict at Chittagong, Bangladesh
-benefits for farmers
* farmers have better road connections via raised embankments, which makes them resistant to erosion & reduces road flooding from 20 days a year to just 5
151
Who are the losers in the coastal conflict at Chittagong, Bangladesh
* disturbances of people & natural habitats (from vegeation removal), especially during construction phases
* 200 households relocated due to road realignment, which is making slow progress
