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Geography - Physical - Paper 1 > Coasts - EQ4 - How can coastlines be managed to meet the needs of all players? > Flashcards

Coasts - EQ4 - How can coastlines be managed to meet the needs of all players? Flashcards

1
Q

economic impacts of coastal flooding can include…

A

loss of property in the form of homes, businesses & farmland

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2
Q

economic impacts of coastal flooding are ………….. to quantify

A

relatively easy

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3
Q

Economic burdens tend to fall on ……………, but there is still a considerable burden for …………………………….

A

governments & NGOs
individuals & families

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4
Q

In the UK, the government does not ………………. to people who lose their homes to coastal erosion

A

provide compensation

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5
Q

In developing countries, poverty means that rebuilding homes may….

A

cost people a large proportion of their income

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6
Q

what is meant by a social cost of coastal flooding

A
  • social cost are those that directly affect people themselves
  • such as losing a family member
  • or having to relocate temporarily or permanently
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7
Q

Social costs are difficult to …..

A

quantify

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8
Q

define amenity value

A
  • the value in cultural, human well-being & economic terms of an attractive environment people enjoy using
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9
Q

give examples of economic loses and loses in amenity value if areas become unattractive & depopulated

A

e.g abandoned buildings, damaged roads, rerouted footpaths, loss of access to beach

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10
Q

what is a climate change refugee

A
  • someone seeking safety in another country due to natural processes
  • including sudden ones such as landslides
  • or gradual ones such as erosion or rising sea levels
  • can be across borders, or within a country
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11
Q

Give an example of internal climate change refugees in the Philippines

A
  • For example, between 2008 and 2013
  • the Philippines had the 3rd largest number of internally displaced people due to natural hazards
  • with their displacements totalling 6.8 million people in 2013
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12
Q

Name 2 examples of countries with climate change refugees

A

Kiribati & Tuvalu

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13
Q

Why are sea levels rising in Tuvalu

A

isostatic change means their island is sinking

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14
Q

Tuvalu is the first nation ever to face…

A

total annihilation in 20-30 years

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15
Q

Tuvalu’s population of ……… will need to be …….

A

11,000
relocated

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16
Q

Describe the social impacts of isostatic sea level rise

A
  • water resources contaminated by seawater
  • food crops (subsistence farming) being destroyed
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17
Q

Geopolitics means that Tuvalu isn’t…

A

being internationally recognised or prioritised

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18
Q

More than ….. of Australia’s coasts are vulnerable to erosion & retreat due to sea level rise

A

1/2

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19
Q

Economic impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
cost of property threatened

A
  • a 1m sea level rise will expose more than US$162 billion,
  • in industrial, commercial, transport & infrastructure ,
  • to coastal flooding & erosion
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20
Q

Economic impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
knock on effect impacts

A
  • every minor increase in sea level can have major impacts
  • e.g a 0.2m rise in sea level = damages of $1.4billion
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21
Q

Economic impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
defences

A

expenditure on beach nourishment could increase by as such as $39billion a year

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22
Q

Economic impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
tourism

A

tourism industry employs 8% of the workforce & utilises the sandy beaches on the Gold Coast which could be eroded

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23
Q

Social impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
amenities

A
  • amenity value lost
  • e.g the Great Barrier Reef’s destruction, will decline tourism, and then less investment
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24
Q

Environmental impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
groundwater

A

-groundwater supplies may be contaminated by salt intrusion

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25
Q

Environmental impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
ecosystems

A

sea level rise will also push seawater further up estuaries, affecting natural ecosystems like freshwater habitats

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26
Q

Environmental impacts of coastal flooding in Australia
coral

A
  • coral reefs may be unable to grow fast enough to keep up with sea level rise
  • those more than 50m deep will die
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27
Q

Explain a cause of coastal flooding in the Philippines
sea level rise

A
  • the rate of sea level rise is around 5.8mm a year
  • which is higher than the global average
  • because the Pacific Oceans’ currents & trade winds move water towards the islands
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28
Q

Explain a cause of coastal flooding in the Philippines
population

A
  • Many coastal communities & cities in the Philippines have growing populations,
  • which pollute & over-exploit mangroves, coral & sea grass
  • which greatly reduces their ability to protect the backshore from sea level rise
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29
Q

Economic Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
predicted losses of ………….. a year without adaptation costs

A

$6.5 billion

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30
Q

Economic Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
fishing industry

A
  • Due to high unemployment, alternative jobs to fishing are difficult to find,
  • so when sea levels rise, & fishing becomes more difficult,
  • there will be an estimated welfare loss to local communities of $186 per year
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31
Q

Economic Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
coastal defences

A

riprap costs up to $21,000 to implement in each location

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32
Q

Economic Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
property losses of …….

A

$2.5 million

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33
Q

Social Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
submergence of cities

A
  • parts of the urban areas around Manila, would be flooded by 2100
  • affecting 2.3 million people
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34
Q

Social Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
By 2100, ….. buildings will be lost & ………… of beach

A

300
123,000

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35
Q

Social Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines
amenity

A

amenity loses of schools, churches & beach

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36
Q

Environmental Impacts of coastal flooding in the Philippines

A

mangroves, coral & sea grass have all been polluted & overexploited

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37
Q

What are the 4 coastal management strategies

A
  • No active intervention
  • managed retreat/ realignment
  • hold the line
  • advance the line
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38
Q

Explain the coastal management strategy –> No active intervention

A
  • allows natural processes to takeover, so the coast erodes landwards or floods
  • no investment in defending against flooding or erosion, whther or not coastal defences have existed previously
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39
Q

Explain the coastal management strategy –> Managed realignment

A
  • allows the coastline to move naturally (in most cases to recede)
  • but managing the process to direct it in certain areas
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40
Q

Explain the coastal management strategy –> hold the line

A
  • requires the construction of a range of coastal engingeering solutions
  • so that the position of the shoreline remains the same overtime
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41
Q

Explain the coastal management strategy –> Advance the line

A
  • builds new coastal defences on the seaward side of the existing coastline
  • usually involves land reclaimation
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42
Q

Synopsis of hard engineering techniques
-characteristics

A
  • high tech
  • high cost
  • man-made solutions
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43
Q

Synopsis of hard engineering techniques
-relation with nature

A

they directly work against nature to reduce erosion

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44
Q

Synopsis of hard engineering techniques
-sustainability

A

-sustainability is a key issue, despite their initial signs of success

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45
Q

Synopsis of soft engineering techniques
-characteristics

A
  • low tech
  • low cost
  • less effective than hard engineering
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46
Q

Synopsis of soft engineering techniques
-relation with nature

A

solutions working with nature to reduce erosion

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47
Q

Synopsis of soft engineering techniques
-sustainability

A

more sustainable as they consider the environment

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48
Q

Before a coastal management project is given the go ahead, a ___________________ is carried out

A

cost-benefit analysis

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49
Q

what takes place in a cost-benefit analysis

A

costs are forecast & then compared with the expected benefits

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50
Q

what are the two types of costs & benefits

A

tangible & intangible

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51
Q

what is a tangible cost/benefit

A

where costs & benefits are known & can be given a £ value

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52
Q

what is an intangible cost/benefit

A

where costs may be difficult to assess but are important (e.g the visual impact of the coast)

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53
Q

Name 6 hard engineering technqiues

A
  • groynes
  • sea walls
  • rip-rap
  • revetements
  • offshore breakwaters
  • gabions
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54
Q

Name 5 soft engineering techniques

A
  • beach nourishment
  • cliff regrading
  • cliff drainage
  • dune stabilisation
  • managed retreat
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55
Q

hard engineering

what are groynes

A
  • commonly wooden walls on a beach at right angles to the coast, to slow down LSD movement
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56
Q

hard engineering

groynes may be……or….., depending on,…..

A

Groynes may be open or closed depending on, how much beach sediment engineers wish to trap

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57
Q

hard engineering

what do groynes aim to do

A
  • to make a beach wider & higher
  • so that waves expend their wave energy on it rather than on the backshore
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58
Q

hard engineering

what are the advantages of groynes

A
  • maintain the size of a beach
  • enhance the beach for recreational activity
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59
Q

hard engineering

what are the disadvantages of groynes

A
  • expensive (about £1000 per linear m)
  • may be barrier to free movement along a beach
  • unsightly
  • can cause terminal groyne syndrome
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60
Q

hard engineering

sea walls often…

A
  • appear in different shapes parallel to the backshore
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61
Q

hard engineering

how do recurved sea walls work

A

use the shape of a wave to direct the water into the following wave, so reducing wave energy

62
Q

hard engineering

how do stepped sea walls work

A

use the pointed edges to break up a wave as it hits the wall, so wave energy is dissipated

63
Q

hard engineering

what are the advantages of sea walls

A
  • made of durable concrete to absorb wave energy
  • give people confidence & a sense of security
64
Q

hard engineering

what are the disadvantages of sea walls

A
  • most expensive of all sea defences (about £5000 per linear m)
  • unsightly & unnatural
  • greatly reduced the supply of sediments, which may affect other coastal areas nearby
65
Q

hard engineering

what is rip rap

A

boulders (usually granite) or especially designed concrete shapes (tetrahedrons)

66
Q

hard engineering

how does rip rap defend the coast

A
  • rip rap is resistant to erosion & has a large surface area,
  • that breaks up waves, dissipating their energy
67
Q

hard engineering

rip rap can also be used to….

A

hold back mass movement on an unstable cliff

68
Q

hard engineering

what is an advantage of rip rap

A
  • can be placed at susceptible points on the backshore, to protect the base of the sea wall
  • long lasting
69
Q

hard engineering

what are the disadvantages of rip rap

A
  • seawater may still move through it, so some weathering & erosion may occur on the backshore
  • can contrast with local geology
70
Q

hard engineering

what are revetments

A
  • sloped walls often made of wood
  • placed parallel to the backshore
  • but a short distance in front of it
71
Q

hard engineering

how do revetments work

A
  • they are able to take the force of breaking waves,
  • so they weaken their erosive strength & protect the backshore
72
Q

hard engineering

what are the advantages of revetments

A
  • trap beach sediments behind them, reducing its removal by backwash or LSD (LSD can continue)
  • slightly cheaper than sea walls
73
Q

hard engineering

what are the disadvantages of revetments

A
  • require constant maintenance as the wood can be abraded by powerful waves
  • look unsightly, especially if they stretch several kilometres along a coast
74
Q

hard engineering

what are offshore breakwaters

A
  • rock boulders (usually granite) which are dropped & aligned
  • in short lengths in shallow nearshore waters
  • parallel to the shore
75
Q

hard engineering

how do offshore breakwaters work

A
  • their purpose is to absorb wave energy & disspate waves
  • before they have a chance to damage the foreshore or the backshore,
  • they allows LSD to continue behind them
76
Q

hard engineering

what are the advantages of offshore breakwaters

A
  • create sheltered areas for recreation & tourism
  • can be used to protect the entrance to harbours, creating calmer waters for safe entry or exit
77
Q

hard engineering

what are the disadvantages of offshore breakwaters

A
  • can cost between £1-2 million
  • may increase deposition on the landward side, reducing LSD
  • may need other coastal engineering to complement them e.g sea walls in gaps
78
Q

hard engineering

what are gabions

A
  • these are pebbles in wire baskets,
  • which when tied together make a wall
  • where the great surface area absorbs wave energy & breaks up waves
79
Q

hard engineering

what are the advantages of gabions

A
  • flexible in terms of the placement, so can act as an additional defence above a sea wall or to hold back mass movement
  • relatively cheap & easy to maintain
80
Q

hard engineering

what are the disadvantages of gabions

A

-not very strong, not suitable for high energy locations

81
Q

soft engineering

what is beach nourishment

A

replaces beach sediment that may have been eroded or transported by LSD

82
Q

soft engineering

how does beach nourishment work

A

a large beach will absorb wave energy & protect the backshore from erosion

83
Q

soft engineering

what are the advantages of beach nourishment

A

-uses natural sediments, so the beach looks natural, providing amenity value for recreation and tourism

84
Q

soft engineering

what are the disadvantages of beach nourishment

A
  • doesn’t last long, needs to be frequently replaced, especially under winter storms conditions
  • sediments may have been dredged from offshore, so changing sediment cell balances & deepening the water, so that waves may approach the shore withmuch more destructive energy
85
Q

soft engineering

what is cliff degrading

A
  • the lithology of a cliff may be unstable & prone to sudden collapse,
  • so to remove this uncertainty engineers calculate a stable slope angle based on the rock characteristics
  • the cliff slope is then artificially back to the stable angle
86
Q

soft engineering

what are the advantages of cliff degrading

A
  • brings some uncertainty & confidence to propery owners close to the cliff edge
  • & reduces risk of sudden loss of property
87
Q

soft engineering

what are the disadvantages of cliff degrading

A
  • cost about £1million
  • engineers may get their calculations wrong, or extreme natural conditions may overwhem their changes
  • stabilisation measures such as cliff drainage & vegetation planting is also needed
88
Q

soft engineering

where can cliff drainage be implemented

A
  • where the cliff lithology consists of a permeable layer above the impermeable layer,
  • it may be unstable after rainfall due to poor pressure
89
Q

soft engineering

how does cliff drainage work

A
  • to reduce this pressure & reduce mass movement,
  • drains with gravel can be inserted into the cliffs to drain water out quickly
90
Q

soft engineering

what are the advantages of cliff drainage

A

-looks natural once completed, as engineering is not generally visible
-reduces mass movement, bringing confidence to residents

91
Q

soft engineering

what are the disadvantages of cliff drainage

A

-will not prevent mass movement, only reduces it to some extent

92
Q

soft engineering

dunes can provide…

A

dunes can provide a natural barrier to sea level rise & storm waves, but are fragile

93
Q

soft engineering

what are the advantages of dune stabilisation

A

-provide natural ecosystems
-effective barrier to higher sea levels & tides

94
Q

soft engineering

what are the disadvantages of dune stabilisation

A

amenity value may be reduced during the short term in maintenance/work

95
Q

soft engineering

what is managed retreat

A
  • where it is accepted that there is little that can be done to stop high sea levels changing the coast,
  • areas can be allowed for the sea to flood or erode
96
Q

soft engineering

give examples of how managed retreat can operate

A
  • fomer salt marshes that are now farmland may be allowed to flood again
  • buffer zones next to eroding cliffs can be created so that no valuable property is lost
97
Q

soft engineering

advantages of managed retreat

A

-can extend current ecosystems

98
Q

soft engineering

disadvantages of managed retreat

A
  • does not prevent land being lost & may only be a medium-term solution, depending on the rate of sea level rise
99
Q

define sustainability

A

meeting the needs of the present without compromising the needs of the future

100
Q

what is meant by futurity

A
  • has the plan considered possible changes in the future such as climate change
  • what long term planning has taken place
101
Q

Sustainable Management is a _____-term approach that considers…

A

long
future threats such as sea level rise & storm surges

102
Q

how might sustainable management cause conflict

A

when the wishes of local people who may lose their land, home, job & sense of community & feel that there is no social justice

103
Q

In the past, how was coastal management carried out

A
  • it had been the job of local councils
  • sea defences were built in isolation with no consideration of how defences in one place might affect others, leading to problems & conflict
104
Q

Today, how is coastal management carried out

A
  • coasts are managed in a more holistic way using Intergrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
105
Q

How many sediment cells are there around the coast of England & Wales as the basis for Shoreline Management Plans (SMPs)

106
Q

Each sediment cell is broken into ……. & SMPs devise plans that apply to…

A
  1. small sub-cells
  2. the whole stretch of the coast within a cell
107
Q

What are the good qualities of Intergrated Coastal Zone Management

A
  • complete sections of coasts are being protected as a whole - rather than individuals villages & towns
  • considers much larger sections of the coast
  • its a process that brings together all of those involved in the development, management & use of the coast
108
Q

What 5 things does Intergrated Coastal Zone Management include

A
  • Balance between:
  • coastal zone development, so the utilsation of resources & potentials
  • & ecosystem conservation, so human & natural threats
109
Q

What are the aims of ICZM

Bring together…

A

Bring together economic decision makers, such as tourism, fishing & ports & different government levels (inc international)

110
Q

What are the aims of ICZM

Emphasise…

A

Emphasise cooperation between all relevant stakeholders so that managemnt benefits everyone

111
Q

What are the aims of ICZM

Manage the entire…

A

Manage the entire coast including resources, human activity & the conservation of ecosystems

112
Q

What are the aims of ICZM

Recognise…

A

Recognise the importance of the coastal zone to people’s livelihoods

113
Q

What are the aims of ICZM

Manage the coast…

A

Manage the coast sustainably - must improve QofL, be environmentally appropriate & equitable (benefitting everyone) & ensure the ability of future generations to use the coast

114
Q

Explain the flow chart of Coastal Management

A
  1. Intergrated Coastal Zone Management
  2. Shoreline Management Plans
  3. Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) & Environment Impact Assessment (EIA)
  4. Hard & Soft engineering policy option
115
Q

When was the idea for ICZMs first introduced

A

1992 Earth Summit

116
Q

When were Shoreline Managment Plans first introduced

A

By DEFRA (Environment, Food & Rural Affairs in 1995

117
Q

What are shoreline management plans

A
  • an approach to coastal managment that involves all stakeholders in making decisions about how coastal erosion & coastal flood risk should be managed
118
Q

What do shoreline management plans aim to balance

A
  • economic, social & environmental needs & pressures
119
Q

Before shoreline management plans, how were coasts managed

A

Often in a ‘piecemeal’ way, leading to problems & conflicts

120
Q

SMP1 vs. SMP2

What time period did SMP1s cover

A

1997 - 2003

121
Q

Why were the limitations of the SMP1’s management policies being practical or acceptable in the long term
-defences

A
  • current defences may have a limited life & improvements may not be economically, socially, technically or environmentally practical
122
Q

Why were the limitations of the SMP1’s management policies being practical or acceptable in the long term
-sea level rise

A
  • predictions of sea level rise due to climate change have increased dramatically since 1997, & need to be inccoporated into the second generation
123
Q

SMP1s were criticsed for not…

A

‘listening’ to local people

124
Q

When were SMP2s proposed

125
Q

What were the aims of SMP2

A

the aim of planning the managment of the UK coastline for 100 years; taking into account medium-term changes such as sea-level rise

126
Q

What are the limitations of SMP2
-changes in policy

A
  • Controversial in places where the policy changed from hold the line to no active intervention
127
Q

What are the limitations of SMP2
-Local authorities started…

A
  • Local authorities started using Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA),
  • which affected property values & the security of communities
128
Q

Give a location example of SMP2

A

The Tyne to Flamborough Head

129
Q

What is being protected along the stretch of coast of Tyne to Flamborough Head

A
  • large urban areas
  • small coastal communities
  • important habitats
  • vary varied geology
130
Q

How is The Tyne to Flamborough Head managed

A
  • Seven council areas have to cooperate over the management of SMP2
  • Scarborough Borough Council is the ‘lead authority’
131
Q

Explain what happens in a cost-benefit analysis

A
  • carried out before a coastal managment projecct is given the go-ahead
  • costs are forecast & then compared with the benefits
  • e.g places with lowland value, such as farmland & recreational land, have difficulty qualifying for government mone to fund sea defences
132
Q

What are the factors which can decide whether to defend a coast or not

A
  • environmental sensitivity of land (e.g nature reserve)
  • economic - enough money & land value
  • political parties
  • engineeering feasibility
  • social value
133
Q

List some of the key stakeholders along the coast

A
  • tourists
  • government
  • resource companies
  • DEFRA
  • fishermen
  • farmers
  • business owners
  • conservationalists
  • residents
  • local govt & MPs
  • construction companies
  • NGOs
134
Q

What is meant by a ‘winner’ on the coast

A
  • people who gain from a decision, either economically, environmentally or socially
135
Q

What is meant by a ‘loser’ on the coast

A
  • people who are likely to:
  • lose property, their business or job
  • be forced to move
  • see the coastline be ‘concreted’ over & view this as an environmental negative
136
Q

In the UK, farmland & isolated houses are likely to remain unprotected due to…

A
  • lowland value
137
Q

Why is coastal management more challenging in developing countries

A
  • rapidly increasing population densities - more lives involved
  • predominant job sectos in fishing & farming - not highly valued land
  • tend not to have compensation packages for people whose property is threatened
  • lack of government spending - funds spent on current, more pressing issues e.g disease
138
Q

In SMP1, what policy decision of coastal management was used in Happisburgh

A

After failing to qualify for govt grants for coastal defences,’managed retreat’ was used

139
Q

In SMP2, what policy decision of coastal management was used in Happisburgh

A

Campaigning has maanged to change Happisburgh to ‘managed realignment’, which does allow for some coastal defences in the future, if funding can be found

140
Q

Who are the winners in the coastal conflict at Happisburgh
-community protected

A
  • There are plans for the local council to purchase farmland, on the landward side of the village, so the community remains the same size
141
Q

Who are the winners in he coastal conflict at Happisburgh
-tourism

A
  • Attempts to relocate the caravan park - protecting tourism
142
Q

Who are the winners in the coastal conflict at Happisburgh
-campaigning

A
  • Campaigning resulted in areas of the coastline inc Happisburgh receiving £3 million for coastal protection
  • inwhich derelict coastal defences can be removed & relocation can be marginally funded
143
Q

Who are the losers in the coastal conflict at Happisburgh
-homes

A
  • The rollback strategy on Beach Road, to create a buffer, owners were merely offered half their properties value to relocate
  • people cannot afford to relocate elsewhere
  • many homes have been lost to the sea, & others demolished
144
Q

Who are the losers in the coastal conflict at Happisburgh
-property value

A
  • By 2105, the Shoreline may recede by 200m, £6 million in value of property losses
145
Q

Who are the losers in the coastal conflict at Happisburgh
-tourism

A
  • loss of access to beach & lifeboat access - concerns for tourism
146
Q

What policy decision has been implemented in Chittagong, Bangladesh

A
  • The Asian Development Bank,
  • underwent a Coastal Climate Resilient Infrastructuure Project,
  • with aims to ‘climate proof’ the area
147
Q

Who are the winners in the coastal conflict at Chittagong, Bangladesh
-social impacts

A
  • poverty alleviated by 10%, by generating income oppportunities
  • people become trained & educated on climate resilience & adaptation measures
148
Q

Who are the winners in the coastal conflict at Chittagong, Bangladesh
-protection

A
  • people are better protected from constructing, improving or extending 25 topical cyclone shelters, taking account sea level rise & higher wind speeds
  • food security & livelihood sprotected from new markets being built on platforms about the 2050 expected sea level
149
Q

Who are the winners in the coastal conflict at Chittagong, Bangladesh
-benefits for farmers

A
  • farmers have better road connections via raised embankments, which makes them resistant to erosion & reduces road flooding from 20 days a year to just 5
150
Q

Who are the losers in the coastal conflict at Chittagong, Bangladesh

A
  • disturbances of people & natural habitats (from vegeation removal), especially during construction phases
  • 200 households relocated due to road realignment, which is making slow progress

Geography - Physical - Paper 1 (17 decks)

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