Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Human Anatomy > Upper Appendicular Muscles > Flashcards

Upper Appendicular Muscles Flashcards

1
Q

What is the function of the muscles that move the pectoral girdle?

A

stabilize the scapula during activities of the upper limb

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Name the 7 muscles that move the pectoral girdle.

A
  • pectoralis minor
  • serratus anterior
  • subclavius
  • trapezius
  • levator scapulae
  • rhomboid minor
  • rhomboid major
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What are the actions of the pectoralis minor?

A

protracts and depresses scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Where is the origin of the pectoralis minor?

A

ribs 3-5

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Where is the insertion of the pectoralis minor?

A

coracoid process of the scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What are the actions of the serratus anterior?

A
  • agonist in scapula protraction
  • superiorly rotates scapula (so glenoid cavity moves superiorly)
  • stabilizes scapula
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Where is the origin of the serratus anterior?

A

ribs 1-8, anterior and superior margins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Where is the insertion of the serratus anterior?

A

medial border of scapula, anterior surface

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What are the actions of the subclavius?

A

stabilizes and depresses clavicle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Where is the origin of the subclavius?

A

rib 1

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Where is the insertion of the subclavius?

A

inferior surface of clavicle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What are the actions of the levator scapulae?

A
  • elevates scapulae

- inferiorly rotates scapula (pulls glenoid cavity inferiorly)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Where is the origin of the levator scapulae?

A

transverse processes of C1-C4

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Where is the insertion of the levator scapulae?

A

superior part of the medial border of the scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What are the actions of the rhomboid major?

A
  • elevates and retracts (adducts) scapula

- inferiorly rotates scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Where is the origin of the rhomboid major?

A

spinous processes of T2-T5

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Where is the insertion of the rhomboid major?

A

medial border of scapula from spine to inferior angle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What are the actions of the rhomboid minor?

A
  • elevates and retracts (adducts) scapula

- inferiorly rotates scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Where is the origin of the rhomboid minor?

A

spinous processes of C7-T1

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Where is the insertion of the rhomboid minor?

A

medial border of scapula superior to spine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What are the actions of the trapezius?

A
  • superior fibres: elevate and superiorly rotate scapula
  • middle fibres: retract scapula
  • inferior fibres: depress scapula
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Where is the origin of the trapezius?

A
  • occipital bone (superior nuchal line)
  • ligamentum nuchae
  • spinous processes of C7-T12
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Where is the insertion of the trapezius?

A
  • clavicle

- accordion process and spine of scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

How many muscles insert on the humerus and cause movement of the arm?

A

11

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Which two muscles have their origins on the axial skeleton and move the glenohumeral joint/arm?

A
  • latissimus dorsi

- pectoralis major

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What are the four rotator cuff muscles?

A
  • subscapularis
  • supraspinatus
  • infraspinatus
  • teres minor
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What are the actions of the latissimus dorsi?

A
  • agonist of arm extension

- adducts and medially rotates arm (“swimmer’s muscle”)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Where is the origin of the latissimus dorsi?

A
  • spinous processes of T7-T12
  • ribs 8-12
  • iliac crest
  • thoracolumbar fascia
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Where is the insertion of the latissimus dorsi?

A

intertubercular groove of humerus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What are the actions of the pectoralis major?

A
  • agonist of arm flexion

- also adducts and medially rotates arm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Where is the origin of the pectoralis major?

A
  • medial clavicle
  • costal cartilages of ribs 2-6
  • body of sternum
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Where is the insertion of the pectoralis major?

A

lateral part of intertubercular groove of humerus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What are the actions of the deltoid?

A
  • anterior fibres: flex and medially rotate arm
  • middle fibres: agonist of arm abduction
  • posterior fibres: extend and laterally rotate arm
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Where is the origin of the deltoid?

A
  • acromial end of the clavicle

- acromion and spine of the scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Where is the insertion of the deltoid?

A

deltoid tuberosity of humerus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

What are the actions of the coracobrachialis?

A

adducts and flexes arm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Where is the origin of the coracobrachialis?

A

coracoid process of the scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Where is the insertion of the coracobrachialis?

A

middle medial shaft of humerus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What are the actions of the teres major?

A

extends, adducts, and medially rotates arm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Where is the origin of the teres major?

A

inferior lateral border and inferior angle of scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Where is the insertion of the teres major?

A

lesser tubercle and intertubercular groove of the humerus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

What are the actions of the triceps brachii (long head)?

A

extends and adducts arm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Where is the origin of the triceps brachii (long head)?

A

infraglenoid tubercle of the scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Where is the insertion of the triceps brachii (long head)?

A

olecranon process of ulna

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

What are the actions of the biceps brachii (long head)?

A

flexes arm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Where is the origin of the biceps brachii (long head)?

A

supraglenoid tubercle of scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Where is the insertion of the biceps brachii (long head)?

A

radial tuberosity and bicipital aponeurosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

What are the general actions of the rotator cuff muscles?

A

stabilize the glenohumeral joint

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

What are the actions of the subscapularis?

A

medially rotates arm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Where is the origin of the subscapularis?

A

subscapular fossa of scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Where is the insertion of the subscapularis?

A

lesser tubercle of humerus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

What are the actions of the supraspinatus?

A

abducts arm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Where is the origin of the supraspinatus?

A

supraspinous fossa of scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

Where is the insertion of the supraspinatus?

A

greater tubercle of humerus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

What are the actions of the infraspinatus?

A

adducts and laterally rotates arm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

Where is the origin of the infraspinatus?

A

infraspinous fossa of the scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

Where is the insertion of the infraspinatus?

A

greater tubercle of humerus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

What are the actions of the teres minor?

A

adducts and laterally rotates arm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

Where is the origin of the teres minor?

A

upper dorsal lateral border of scapula (superior to teres major origin)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

Where is the insertion of the teres minor?

A

greater tubercle of humerus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

Which muscles abduct the glenohumeral joint/arm?

A
  • deltoid (middle fibres)

- supraspinatus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

Which muscles adduct the glenohumeral joint/arm?

A
  • latissimus dorsi
  • pectoralis major
  • coracobrachialis
  • teres major
  • teres minor
  • infraspinatus
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

Which muscles extend the glenohumeral joint/arm?

A
  • latissimus dorsi
  • deltoid (posterior fibres)
  • teres major
  • long head of triceps brachii
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

Which muscles flex the glenohumeral joint/arm?

A
  • pectoralis major
  • deltoid (anterior fibres)
  • coracobrachialis
  • long head of biceps brachii
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

Which muscles laterally rotate the glenohumeral joint/arm?

A
  • infraspinatus
  • teres minor
  • deltoid (posterior fibres)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

Which muscles medially rotate the glenohumeral joint/arm?

A
  • subscapularis
  • deltoid (anterior fibres)
  • latissimus dorsi
  • pectoralis major
  • teres major
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

What are the actions of the biceps brachii (long head and short head)?

A
  • flexes forearm, powerful supinator of forearm

- long head flexes arm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

Where is the origin of the biceps brachii (long head and short head)?

A

long head: supraglenoid tubercle of scapula

short head: coracoid process of scapula

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

Where is the insertion of the biceps brachii (long head and short head)?

A

radial tuberosity and bicipital aponeurosis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

What are the actions of the brachialis?

A

primary flexor of forearm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

Where is the origin of the brachialis?

A

distal anterior surface of humerus

72
Q

Where is the insertion of the brachialis?

A

tuberosity and coronoid process of ulna

73
Q

What are the actions of the brachioradialis?

A

flexes forearm

74
Q

Where is the origin of the brachioradialis?

A

lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus

75
Q

Where is the insertion of the brachioradialis?

A

styloid process of radius

76
Q

What are the actions of the triceps brachii (long, lateral, and medial head)?

A
  • primary extensor of forearm

- long head of triceps also extends and adducts arm

77
Q

Where is the origin of the triceps brachii (long, lateral, and medial head)?

A

long head: infraglenoid tubercle of scapula
lateral head: posterior humerus above radial groove
medial head: posterior humerus below radial groove

78
Q

Where is the insertion of the triceps brachii (long, lateral, and medial head)?

A

olecranon of ulna

79
Q

What are the actions of the anconeus?

A

extends forearm

80
Q

Where is the origin of the anconeus?

A

lateral epicondyle of humerus

81
Q

Where is the insertion of the anconeus?

A

olecranon of ulna

82
Q

What are the actions of the pronator quadratus?

A

pronates forearm

83
Q

Where is the origin of the pronator quadratus?

A

distal one-fourth of ulna

84
Q

Where is the insertion of the pronator quadratus?

A

distal one-fourth of radius

85
Q

What are the actions of the pronator teres?

A

pronates forearm

86
Q

Where is the origin of the pronator teres?

A

medial epicondyle of humerus and coronoid process of ulna

87
Q

Where is the insertion of the pronator teres?

A

lateral surface of radius

88
Q

What are the actions of the supinator?

A

supinates forearm

89
Q

Where is the origin of the supinator?

A

lateral epicondyle of humerus and ulna distal to radial notch

90
Q

Where is the insertion of the supinator?

A

anterolateral surface of radius distal to radial tuberosity

91
Q

Which muscle(s) extend the elbow joint/forearm?

A
  • triceps brachii

- anconeus

92
Q

Which muscles flex the elbow joint/forearm?

A
  • brachialis
  • biceps brachii
  • brachioradialis
93
Q

Which muscles pronate the elbow joint/forearm?

A
  • pronator teres

- pronator quadratus

94
Q

Which muscles supinate the elbow joint/forearm?

A
  • biceps brachii

- supinator

95
Q

What are the actions of the flexor carpi radialis?

A

flexes wrist and abducts hand

96
Q

Where is the origin of the flexor carpi radialis?

A

medial epicondyle of humerus

97
Q

Where is the insertion of the flexor carpi radialis?

A

base of metacarpals II and III

98
Q

What are the actions of the palmaris longus?

A

weak wrist flexor

99
Q

Where is the origin of the palmaris longus?

A

medial epicondyle of humerus

100
Q

Where is the insertion of the palmaris longus?

A

flexor retinaculum and palmar aponeurosis

101
Q

What are the actions of the flexor carpi ulnaris?

A

flexes wrist and adducts hand

102
Q

Where is the origin of the flexor carpi ulnaris?

A
  • medial epicondyle of humerus

- olecranon annd posterior surface of ulna

103
Q

Where is the insertion of the flexor carpi ulnaris?

A
  • pisiform and hamate bones

- base of metacarpal V

104
Q

What are the actions of the flexor digitorum superficialis?

A

flexes wrist, 2nd-5th MP joints and PIP joints

105
Q

Where is the origin of the flexor digitorum superficialis?

A
  • medial epicondyle of humerus

- coronoid process of ulna

106
Q

Where is the insertion of the flexor digitorum superficialis?

A

middle phalanges of fingers 2-5

107
Q

What are the actions of the flexor pollicis longus?

A
  • flexes MP joint of thumb, IP joint of thumb

- weakly flexes wrist

108
Q

Where is the origin of the flexor pollicis longus?

A
  • anterior shaft of radius

- interosseous membrane

109
Q

Where is the insertion of the flexor pollicis longus?

A

distal phalanx of thumb

110
Q

What are the actions of the flexor digitorum profundus?

A

flexes wrist, 2nd-5th MP joints, PIP joints, and DIP joints

111
Q

Where is the origin of the flexor digitorum profundus?

A
  • anteromedial surface of ulna

- interosseous membrane

112
Q

Where is the insertion of the flexor digitorum profundus?

A

distal phalanges of fingers 2-5

113
Q

What are the actions of the extensor carpi radialis longus?

A
  • extends wrist

- abducts hand

114
Q

Where is the origin of the extensor carpi radialis longus?

A

lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus

115
Q

Where is the insertion of the extensor carpi radialis longus?

A

base of metacarpal II

116
Q

What are the actions of the extensor carpi radialis brevis?

A
  • extends wrist

- abducts hand

117
Q

Where is the origin of the extensor carpi radialis brevis?

A

lateral epicondyle of humerus

118
Q

Where is the insertion of the extensor carpi radialis brevis?

A

base of metacarpal III

119
Q

What are the actions of the extensor digitorum?

A
  • extends wrist

- extends 2nd-5th MP joints, PIP joints, and DIP joints

120
Q

Where is the origin of the extensor digitorum?

A

lateral epicondyle of humerus

121
Q

Where is the insertion of the extensor digitorum?

A

distal and middle phalanges of fingers 2-5

122
Q

What are the actions of the extensor digiti minimi?

A

extends wrist, MP, and PIP joints of finger 5

123
Q

Where is the origin of the extensor digiti minimi?

A

lateral epicondyle of humerus

124
Q

Where is the insertion of the extensor digiti minimi?

A

proximal phalanx of finger 5

125
Q

What are the actions of the extensor carpi ulnaris?

A
  • extends wrist

- adducts hand

126
Q

Where is the origin of the extensor carpi ulnaris?

A
  • lateral epicondyle of humerus

- posterior border of ulna

127
Q

Where is the insertion of the extensor carpi ulnaris?

A

base of metacarpal V

128
Q

What are the actions of the abductor pollicis longus?

A
  • abducts thumb

- extends wrist (weakly)

129
Q

Where is the origin of the abductor pollicis longus?

A
  • proximal dorsal surfaces of radius and ulna

- interosseous membrane

130
Q

Where is the insertion of the abductor pollicis longus?

A

lateral edge of metacarpal I

131
Q

What are the actions of extensor pollicis brevis?

A
  • extends MP joints of thumb

- extends wrist (weakly)

132
Q

Where is the origin of the extensor pollicis brevis?

A
  • posterior surface of radius

- interosseous membrane

133
Q

Where is the insertion of the extensor pollicis brevis?

A

proximal phalanx of thumb

134
Q

What are the actions of the extensor pollicis longus?

A
  • extends MP and IP joints of thumb

- extends wrist (weakly)

135
Q

Where is the origin of the extensor pollicis longus?

A
  • posterior surface of ulna

- interosseous membrane

136
Q

Where is the insertion of the extensor pollicis longus?

A

distal phalanx of thumb

137
Q

What are the actions of the extensor indicis?

A
  • extends MP, PIP, and DIP joints of finger 2

- extends wrist (weakly)

138
Q

Where is the origin of the extensor indicis?

A
  • posterior surface of ulna

- interosseous membrane

139
Q

Where is the insertion of the extensor indicis?

A

tendon of extensor digitorum

140
Q

What are the actions of the flexor pollicis brevis?

A

flexes thumb

141
Q

Where is the origin of the flexor pollicis brevis?

A
  • flexor retinaculum

- trapezium

142
Q

Where is the insertion of the flexor pollicis brevis?

A

proximal phalanx of thumb

143
Q

What are the actions of the abductor pollicis brevis?

A

abducts thumb

144
Q

Where is the origin of the abductor pollicis brevis?

A
  • flexor retinaculum
  • scaphoid
  • trapezium
145
Q

Where is the insertion of the abductor pollicis brevis?

A

lateral side of proximal phalanx of thumb

146
Q

What are the actions of the opponens pollicis?

A

opposition of thumb

147
Q

Where is the origin of the opponens pollicis?

A
  • flexor retinaculum

- trapezium

148
Q

Where is the insertion of the opponens pollicis?

A

lateral side of metacarpal I

149
Q

What are the actions of the flexor digiti minimi brevis?

A

flexes finger 5

150
Q

Where is the origin of the flexor digiti minimi brevis?

A
  • hamate bone

- flexor retinaculum

151
Q

Where is the insertion of the flexor digiti minimi brevis?

A

proximal phalanx of finger 5

152
Q

What are the actions of the abductor digiti minimi?

A

abducts finger 5

153
Q

Where is the origin of the abductor digiti minimi?

A
  • pisiform bone

- tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris

154
Q

Where is the insertion of the abductor digiti minimi?

A

proximal phalanx of finger 5

155
Q

What are the actions of the opponens digiti minimi?

A

opposition of finger 5

156
Q

Where is the origin of the opponens digiti minimi?

A
  • hamate bone

- flexor retinaculum

157
Q

Where is the insertion of the opponens digiti minimi?

A

metacarpal bone V

158
Q

What are the actions of the lumbricals?

A
  • flexes 2nd-5th MP joints

- extends 2nd-5th PIP and DIP joints

159
Q

Where is the origin of the lumbricals?

A

tendons of flexor digitorum profundus

160
Q

Where is the insertion of the lumbricals?

A

dorsal tendons on fingers 2-5

161
Q

What are the actions of the dorsal interossei?

A
  • abducts fingers 2-5
  • flexes MP joints 2-5
  • extends PIP and DIP joints
162
Q

Where is the origin of the dorsal interossei?

A

adjacent, opposing faces of metacarpals

163
Q

Where is the insertion of the dorsal interossei?

A

dorsal tendons of fingers 2-5

164
Q

What are the actions of the palmar interossei?

A
  • adducts fingers 2-5
  • flexes MP joints 2-5
  • extends PIP and DIP joints
165
Q

Where is the origin of the palmar interossei?

A

metacarpal bones II, IV, V

166
Q

Where is the insertion of the palmar interossei?

A

sides of proximal phalanx bases for fingers 2, 4, and 5

167
Q

What are the actions of the adductor pollicis?

A

adducts thumb

168
Q

Where is the origin of the adductor pollicis?

A
  • oblique head of capitate bone
  • bases of metacarpals II, III
  • transverse head of metacarpal III
169
Q

Where is the insertion of the adductor pollicis?

A

medial side of proximal phalanx of thumb

170
Q

Which muscles abduct the hand?

A
  • flexor carpi radialis
  • extensor carpi radialis brevis
  • extensor carpi radialis longus
171
Q

Which muscles adduct the hand?

A
  • extensor carpi ulnaris

- flexor carpi ulnaris

172
Q

Which muscles extend the wrist?

A
  • extensor digitorum
  • extensor carpi radialis brevis
  • extensor carpi radialis longus
  • extensor carpi ulnaris
  • extensor indicis
  • extensor pollicis longus
  • extensor pollicis brevis
  • abductor pollicis longus
173
Q

Which muscles flex the wrist?

A
  • flexor carpi radialis
  • flexor carpi ulnaris
  • flexor digitorum superficialis
  • flexor digitorum profundus
  • palmaris longus
  • flexor pollicis longus
174
Q

Which muscles abduct the finger?

A
  • dorsal interossei
  • abductor pollicis longus
  • abductor pollicis brevis
  • abductor digiti minimi
175
Q

Which muscles adduct the finger?

A
  • palmar interossei

- adductor pollicis

176
Q

Which muscles extend the IP joint?

A
  • extensor digitorum
  • extensor indicis
  • extensor pollicis brevis
  • extensor pollicis longus
  • extensor digiti minimi
  • lumbricals
  • dorsal interossei
  • palmar interossei
177
Q

What muscles flex the IP joint?

A
  • flexor digitorum profundus
  • flexor digitorum superficialis
  • flexor pollicis longus
  • flexor pollicis brevis
  • flexor digiti minimi

Human Anatomy (15 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions