Unit 3 (litle ch.5) Ch.6 Check #2 Flashcards
R,I - Ch.5 Pg. 208
Nicolaus Copernicus
A: Copernicus studied astronomy, medicine, and church law at the famed universities of Cracow, Bologna, Padua, and Ferrara before taking up a church position in Prussia. Copernicus came to believe that Ptolemy’s cumbersome rules detracted from the majesty of a perfect creator. He preferred an idea espoused by some ancient Greek scholars: that the sun, rather than the earth, was at the center of the universe. Without questioning the Aristotelian belief in crystal spheres or the idea that circular motion was divine, Copernicus theorized that the stars and planets, including the earth, revolved around a fixed sun.
B:The Copernican hypothesis had enormous scientific and religious implications, many of which the conservative Copernicus did not anticipate.
I,S - Ch.5 Pg. 208
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.
A: In 1543, the year of his death Copernicus published his findings in On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.
B: The Copernican hypothesis had enormous scientific and religious implications, many of which the conservative Copernicus did not anticipate.
I,R,S - Ch. 6 Pg. 208
Copernican Hypothesis/Heliocentric
A: - The idea that the sun, not the earth, is the center of the universe. (Ch. 6)
B: -The first great departure from the medieval system
- The Copernican hypothesis had enormous scientific and religious implications
- The stars nightly movement simply a result of the earth’s rotation
- Second, Copernicus’s theory suggested a universe of staggering size
- Second, Copernicus’s theory suggested a universe of staggering size
- Third, by using mathematics, instead of philosophy, to justify his theories, Copernicus challenged the traditional hierarchy of the disciplines.
-Finally, by characterizing the earth as just another planet, Copernicus destroyed the basic idea of Aristotelian physics — that the earthly sphere was quite different from the heavenly one. Where then were Heaven and the throne of God?
-A few Protestant scholars became avid Copernicans, while others accepted some elements of his criticism of Ptolemy but firmly rejected the notion that the earth moved, a doctrine that contradicted the literal reading of some passages of the Bible.
- Catholic Church had never insisted on literal interpretations of the Bible, it did not officially declare the Copernican hypothesis false until provoked by the publications of Galileo Galilei in 1616
I,S - Ch.5 Pg. 161
Scientific Revolution
A: A wave of scientific discovery and questioning that lead to revolutionary advancements in scientific
- 16th century mostly had an interest in better understanding of the natural world, and how it connects with spirituality
-17th century found precise knowledge about the natural world
- 18th century was more focused on philosophy and social science/the study of society
-18th cen start of the “enlightenment” movement they sought to end prejudice, outmoded traditions, and ignorance, challenging traditional values.
B: -16 cen Creation of the scientific method, people of many classes gained an interest in science, Astronomy and anatomy were revolutionized
-17 cen fundamentally new ways of understanding the natural world emerged
- 18th cen members of the enlightenment movement created concepts of human rights, equality, universalism, and tolerance. Some people went the opposite direction and used their new understanding of nature and reason to proclaim their own superiority, thus rationalizing such attitudes as racism and sexism.
I,S - Ch.6 Pg. 209
Tycho Brahe
A: -Dutch astronomer
-He agreed with the Copernican Theory
B: - Brahe established himself as Europe’s leading astronomer with his detailed observations of a new star that appeared suddenly in 1572 and shone very brightly for almost two years
- The new star, which was actually a distant exploding star, challenged the idea that the heavenly spheres were unchanging and therefore perfect.
-Impressed by his work, the king of Denmark provided funds for Brahe to build the most sophisticated observatory of his day.
-Created new
- For twenty years Brahe and his assistants observed the stars and planets with the naked eye in order to create new and improved tables of planetary motion, dubbed the Rudolphine Tables in honor of his patron
- Brahe believed that all the planets except the earth revolved around the sun and that the entire group of sun and planets revolved in turn around the earth-moon system
- Brahe’s assistant re-ex amend Brahe’s work and determined, it wasn’t factual. Kepler used Brahe’s data to develop three revolutionary laws of planetary motion
I,S - Ch.6 Pg. 209
Johannes Kepler
A: He was Brahe’s assistant. He re-ex amend Brahe’s work and determined, it wasn’t factual. Kepler used Brahe’s data to develop three revolutionary laws of planetary motion
B: -First he demonstrated that the orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical rather than circular.
-Second, he demonstrated that the planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits.
- Finally, Kepler’s third law stated that the time a planet takes to make its complete orbit is precisely related to its distance from the sun.
I,S - Ch.5 Pg. 209
Galileo Galilei
A: A Florentine astronomer who revolutionized understanding of th
B: -He showed that a uniform force produced a uniform acceleration
-Proposed the concept of inertia, which is the idea that an object in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by an external force; essentially laying the groundwork for what later became known as Newton’s First Law of Motion.
-Used a telescope to discover the irregularity of the moon’s surface, Galileo disproved a central tenet of medieval cosmography: that the heavens were composed of perfect, unblemished spheres essentially different from the base matter of earth.
I,S - Ch.6 Pg. 210
Isaac Newton
A: English scientist who united the experimental and theoretical-mathematical sides of modern science.
B: -Developed the law of universal gravitation: Newton’s law that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the objects’ quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. (Ch. 6)
-Created the Principia Mathematica a single explanatory system that could integrate the astronomy of Copernicus, as corrected by Kepler’s laws, with the physics of Galileo and his predecessors.
I,S -Ch.6 Pg. 2011
Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy)
A: Newton wrote the Principia Mathematica a single explanatory system that could integrate newton’s laws with the astronomy of Copernicus, as corrected by Kepler’s laws, with the physics of Galileo and his predecessors.
B: The Principia Mathematica used mathematical laws to decisively explain motion and mechanics
I,S,N - Ch.6 Pg. 212
Francis Bacon
A: English politician, scientist, experimentalist, and writer Francis Bacon
B: -Bacon called for a new approach to investigating scientific inquiry based on direct observation called “inductive reasoning”
-Bacon’s work, and his prestige as lord chancellor under James I, led to the widespread adoption of what was called “experimental philosophy” in Britain after his death.
-In 1660 followers of Bacon created the Royal Society which met weekly to conduct experiments and discuss the latest findings of scholars across Europe
-Descartes’s thought was highly influential in France and the Netherlands, but less so in England,
where experimental philosophy won the day.
.S,I,N - Ch.6 Pg. 213
René Descartes
A: -In 1619, as a twenty-three-year-old soldier serving in the Thirty Years’ War, the French philosopher René Descartes had a vision he saw that there was a perfect correspondence between geometry and algebra and that geometrical spatial figures could be expressed as algebraic equations and vice versa.
-Descartes investigated the basic nature of matter
-Belived in something he called “first principles.” When experiments proved that sensory impressions could be wrong, Descartes decided it was necessary to doubt them, and to then use deductive reasoning from “self-evident truths”
-Believed that a vacuum could not exist in nature.
-Created Cartesian dualism: Descartes’s view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter
B: -Descartes’s discovery of analytic geometry provided scientists with an important new tool.
-Descartes’s thought was highly influential in France and the Netherlands, but less so in England, where experimental philosophy won the day.
I,S,N - Ch.6 Pg. 214
Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564)
A: -Experimentalist, Flemish physician
-Studied anatomy by dissecting human bodies, often those of executed criminals.
-In 1543 Vesalius issued his masterpiece, “On the Structure of the Human Body.” A 200 page book of precise drawings of human anatomy
B: Vesalius’s masterpiece, “On the Structure of the Human Body” revolutionized the understanding of human anatomy, disproving Galen
I,S,N - Ch.6 Pg. 214
William Harvey (1578–1657)
A: -English royal physician
B: -The experimental approach led William Harvey to discover the circulation of blood through the veins and arteries in 1628.
-Harvey was the first to explain that the heart worked like a pump and to explain the function of its muscles and valves.
I,S,N - Ch.6 Pg. 214
Robert Boyle (1627–1691)
A: -Robert Boyle was a key figure in the victory of experimental methods in England
-Helped create the Royal Society in 1660
-Among the first scientists to perform controlled experiments and publish details of them
B: -He helped improve a number of scientific instruments
-Disproved Descartes’s belief that a vacuum could not exist in nature
-Based on his experiments investigating the properties of air and create a vacuum, he formulated a new law in 1662, now known as Boyle’s law, that states that the pressure of a gas varies inversely with volume.
-Boyle also hypothesized that chemical substances were composed of tiny mechanical particles, out of which all other matter was formed (aka atoms)
I,S,P - Ch.6 Pg. 235 and 236
Enlightenment
A: An 18th century scientific and sociological movement in the 18th century
-Lead by nobles
-Enlightenment philosophes did not direct their message to peasants or urban laborers. They believed that the masses had no time or talent for philosophical speculation and that elevating them would be a long and potentially dangerous process.
-For those who could not afford to purchase books, lending libraries offered access to the new ideas of the Enlightenment.
B: - 18th cen members of the enlightenment movement created concepts of human rights, equality, universalism, and tolerance.
-With their new notions of progress and social improvement, Europeans would embark on important revolutions in industry and politics in the centuries that followed
-Some people went the opposite direction and used their new understanding of nature and reason to proclaim their own superiority, thus rationalizing such attitudes as racism and sexism.
-Created “the public sphere” An idealized intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where the public came together to discuss important issues relating to society, economics, and politics in places like salons, book clubs, debating societies, Masonic lodges, and coffee shops
I,S,P,N - Ch.6 Pg. 218
Philosophes (NOT the same thing as philosophies)
A: A group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow humans in the Age of Enlightenment.
-Social movement in france
-Wanted to reach a larger audience of elites
-To appeal to the public and get around the censors, the philosophes wrote novels and plays, histories and philosophies, and dictionaries and encyclopedias, all filled with satire and double meanings to spread their message.
-The strength of the philosophes lay in their dedication and organization.
B: Their greatest achievement was a group effort — the seventeen-volume Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts, edited by Denis Diderot (1713–1784) and Jean le Rond d’Alembert (1717–1783). The Encyclopedia contained seventy-two thousand articles by leading scientists, writers, skilled workers, and progressive priests
-.Science and the industrial arts were promoted, religion and immortality questioned. Intolerance, legal injustice, and out-of-date social institutions were openly criticized.
-Summing up the new worldview of the Enlightenment, the Encyclopedia was widely read, especially in less expensive reprint editions, and it was extremely influential.
-hated all forms of religious intolerance, which they believed led to fanaticism and cruelty.
S,I,P - Ch.6 Pg. 217
Baron de Montesquieu
A: -A Philosophe play write, acotr, writer etc.
B: Was one of the first to use theater and literature to appeal the public to his cause/world view (the Philosophe movement)
S,I,P - Ch.6 Pg. 217
Voltaire
A: The most famous François Marie Arouet (pen name was the most famous philosophe
B: Voltaire wrote more than seventy witty volumes, hobnobbed with royalty, and died a millionaire through shrewd speculations. His early career, however, was turbulent, and he was twice arrested for insulting noblemen. To avoid a prison term, Voltaire moved to England for three years, and there he came to share Montesquieu’s enthusiasm for English liberties and institutions.
-Didn’t believe in social and economic equality
-Belived in deism
-hated all forms of religious intolerance, which they believed led to fanaticism and cruelty.
S,I,R - Ch.6 Pg. 218
Deism
A: Belief in a distant, noninterventionist deity; common among Enlightenment thinkers. (Ch. 6)
-DISCLAIMER: Even though it sounds logical, Deism was NOT founded by Denis Diderot
B: Added to the religious conflicts (?)
S,I,P - Ch.6 Pg. 218,219,225
Denis Diderot
A: -Diderot was the son of a widely respected master cutler
-Eventually became an atheist
-Rationalist
-Philosophes
B: Edited the seventeen-volume Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts. The greatest achievement of the Philosophes. Changeling newly created ideas of European’s “racial superiority” (Philosophes movement was created around the same time when Europians founded the idea of race, wherase before people were usually distinguished by and discriminated against based on their nationality not skin color, facial, features, etc)
S,I,P,R - Ch.6 Pg. 218
The Encyclopedia (Philosophes)
A: Greatest achievement of the Philosophes
- Completed in 1766 despite opposition from the French state and the Catholic Church,
-Many articals mashed together
B: contained seventy-two thousand articles by leading scientists, writers, skilled workers, and progressive priests. Science and the industrial arts were exalted, religion and immortality questioned. Intolerance, legal injustice, and out-of-date social institutions were openly criticized. The Encyclopedia also included many articles describing non-European cultures and societies, and it acknowledged Muslim scholars’ contribution to Western science. Summing up the new worldview of the Enlightenment, the Encyclopedia was widely read, especially in less expensive reprint editions, and it was extremely influentiace.
S,I,P - Ch.6 Pg. 219
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
A: Attacked the philosophes’ faith in reason and progress.
-The son of a poor Swiss watchmaker
-Part of the Parisian Enlightenment through his brilliant intellecte
-He was passionately committed to individual freedom.
-He attacked rationalism and civilization as destroying, rather than liberating, the individual.
B: -Contributed to The Social Contract (1762) during England’s brief experiment with Republicanism
-Rousseau’s ideals greatly influenced the early Romantic movement, which rebelled against the culture of the Enlightenment in the late eighteenth century.
S,I,P,N - Ch.6 Pg. 192
The Social Contract (1762)
A: A social contract in which all members of society placed themselves under the absolute rule of the sovereign, who would maintain peace and order.
-Written by Thomas Hobbes (although other philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau contributed)
B: -Society could not, having accepted the contract, rise up against its king.
-Allowed politician Oliver Cromwell’s dictatorship to flourish during England’s brief experiment with Republicanism
S,I,P,N - Ch.6 Pg. 221
Adam Smith
A: -Major figure of the Scottish Enlightenment, and philosopher
-Smith believed that the thriving commercial life of the eighteenth century was likely to produce civic virtue through the values of competition, fair play, and individual autonomy.
-Smith argued that social interaction caused people to have sympathy for one another that led people to behave in ethical ways, despite inherent tendencies toward self-interest.
-Smith criticized guilds for their stifling restrictions, as well as state monopolies, privileged companies, and mercantilist governments for laws such as tariffs
-Belived free competition, which would protect consumers from price gouging and give all citizens an equal right to do what they did best. Smith advocated a more highly developed “division of labor” that entailed separating craft production into individual tasks to increase workers’ speed and efficiency.
S,I,P,N - Ch.6 Pg. 221
“An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” (1776)
A: Written by Adam Smith a major figure of the Scottish Enlightenment
–Criticized guilds for their stifling restrictions, as well as state monopolies, privileged companies, and mercantilist governments for laws such as tariffs
-Smith advocated a more highly developed “division of labor” that entailed separating craft production into individual tasks to increase workers’ speed and efficiency.
-Belived in a free market
B: Established the basis for modern economics
I,S,P,N - Ch.6 Pg. 225
Salons
A: Salons were weekly meetings held in wealthy households
B: Salons brought together writers, aristocrats, financiers, and noteworthy foreigners for meals and witty discussions of the latest trends in literature, science, and philosophy.
I,S - Ch.6 Pg. 226
Mary Wollstonecraft
A: Enlightenment philosopher who debated with Jacques Rousseau about the essential characteristics of the female sex and the appropriate education and social roles for women.
B: Wollstonecraft responded that virtue was a universal human attribute for both sexes.
-Thought that women were weaker in SOME ways, she believed that women should strive to honor their God-given human dignity through education and duty, just like men.
S,I,P - Ch.6 Pg. 228
Coffeehouses
A: Coffeehouses first appeared in the late seventeenth century.
-Part of the Public sphere
-Enlightenment philosophers came there to discuss the latest trends in literature, science, politics, and philosophy.
B: Coffeehouses as well as other intellectual institutions and practices encouraged the spread of enlightened ideas. Such institutions celebrated open debate informed by critical reason. The
I,S,P,R - Ch.6 Pg. 228
Enlightened Absolutism
A: Some absolutist rulers tried to reform their governments in accordance with Enlightenment ideals
-Part of the later eighteenth century.
B: In both Catholic and Protestant lands, rulers typically fused Enlightenment principles with religion, drawing support for their innovations from reform-minded religious thinkers.
R,I,S,P,N - Ch.6 Pg. 288
Frederick II of Prussia
A: Frederick II (r. 1740–1786) of Prussia, commonly known as Frederick the Great, built masterfully on the work of his father, Frederick William I
-Enlightened Absolutist
B: Although in his youth he embraced culture and literature rather than the militarism championed by his father, by the time he came to the throne Frederick was determined to use the splendid army he had inherited.
S,I,P,R,N - Ch.6 Pg. 232
Maria Theresa of Austria
A: A devoutly Catholic mother (her son is Joseph II) and wife who inherited power from her father, Charles VI, Maria Theresa was a remarkable but old-fashioned absolutist.
B: Maria Theresa (r. 1740–1780) of Austria, set out to reform her nation, although traditional dynastic power politics was a more important motivation for her than Enlightenment teachings.
-She was determined to introduce reforms that would make the state stronger and more efficient. (because Austria was still recovering from War of the Austrian Succession)
-She initiated church reform, with measures aimed at limiting the papacy’s influence
-Second, a whole series of administrative renovations strengthened the central bureaucracy, smoothed out some provincial differences, and revamped the tax system, taxing even the lands of nobles, previously exempt from taxation.
-Third, the government sought to improve the conditions of the agricultural population, cautiously reducing the power of lords over their hereditary serfs and their partially free peasant tenants.
P,N,S - Ch.6 Pg. 228
The War of the Austrian Succession 1740 to 1748
A: What is known collectively as the War of the Austrian Succession began on Dec. 16, 1740, when Frederick II of Prussia invaded Silesia, one of the richest Habsburg provinces. His army defeated the Austrians at Mollwitz in April 1741 and overran Silesia. Maria Theresa was forced to cede almost all of Silesia to Prussia.
B: Maria Theresa was forced to cede almost all of Silesia to Prussia.
I,S,P - Ch.6 Pg. 230
Catherine the Great of Russia
A: Catherine (r. 1762–1796) was a German princess from Anhalt-Zerbst, a small principality sandwiched between Prussia and Saxony. Her father commanded a regiment of the Prussian army, but her mother was related to the Romanovs of Russia, and that proved to be Catherine’s opening to power.
-Enlightened absolutist
-Major Badass
B: Catherine the Great of Russia (r. 1762–1796) was one of the most remarkable rulers of her age, and the French philosophes adored her.
-Didn’t give 2 shits about her husband Peter III and from his unpopularity to form a conspiracy to depose her husband.
- In 1762 Catherine’s lover Gregory Orlov and his three brothers, all army officers, murdered Peter, and the German princess became empress of Russia.
-She worked hard to continue Peter the Great’s (AKA Peter I) effort to bring the culture of western Europe to Russia With these actions, Catherine won good press in the West for herself and for her country
-Moreover, this intellectual ruler, who wrote plays and loved good talk, set the tone for the entire Russian nobility.
-Catherine’s second goal was domestic reform
-Catherine’s third goal was territorial expansion. Her armies subjugated the last descendants of the Mongols and the Crimean Tatars and began the conquest of the Caucasus (KAW-kuh-suhs), the region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.
-Her greatest coup by far was the partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
P,S - Ch.6 Pg. 232
Partitions of Poland
A: The greatest coup of Catherine the Great of Russia. Started when, between 1768 and 1772, Catherine’s armies scored unprecedented victories against the Ottomans which threatened to disturb the balance of power between Russia and Austria in eastern Europe, Frederick of Prussia obligingly proposed that the Ottomans be let off easily and that Prussia, Austria, and Russia each compensate itself by taking a gigantic slice of the weakly ruled Polish territory. Catherine jumped at the chance. The first partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in 1772.
B: Subsequent partitions in 1793 and 1795 gave away the rest of Polish territory. Poland did not regain its independence until the twentieth century.
I,S,P,R - Ch.6 Pg. 223
Joseph II of Austria
A: The radical son of Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II (r. 1780–1790), drew on Enlightenment ideals, earning the title of “revolutionary emperor.”
-Joseph II, ruled in tandem with his mother with his mother from 1765 to 1779 and a strong supporter of change from above, implemented reform rapidly when he came to the throne in 1780
B: -Most notably, Joseph issued an edict of religious toleration in 1781.
-In the same year he abolished serfdom, and in 1789 he decreed that peasants could pay landlords in cash rather than through labor on their land. This measure was violently rejected not only by the nobility but also by the peasants it was intended to help, because they lacked the necessary cash.
-When a disillusioned Joseph died prematurely at forty-nine, the entire Habsburg empire was in turmoil.
S,R,P - Ch.6 Pg. 234
Haskalah
A: The Jewish Enlightenment of the second half of the eighteenth century, led by the Prussian philosopher Moses Mendelssohn. (Ch. 6)
B: The Haskalah accompanied a period of controversial social change within Jewish communities in which rabbinic controls loosened and interaction with Christians increased.
