Unit 2 AC2.3 AC3.2 Describe/ evaluate sociological theories of criminality Flashcards
1
Q
Define function.
A
What something does – functionalists argue that crime has a positive function.
2
Q
Define structural theory.
A
An explanation that focuses on the way in which society is organized.
3
Q
Define socialisation
A
Process of learning norms and values
4
Q
Define anomie
A
‘Normlessness’ Society has multiple sets of norms and values that are often conflicting.
5
Q
Define strain
A
Conflict between the pressure to conform to society’s norms but still achieve its main goals of monetary success
6
Q
Define utilitarian crime
A
Crimes committed for financial gain
7
Q
What is the key idea in Durkheim’s functionalist theory?
A
Crime unites society’s members against wrongdoers, reinforcing the boundary between right and wrong
8
Q
State the four important functions of crime.
A
Safety valve, warning light, boundary maintenance, social change
9
Q
What is boundary maintenance?
A
Crime unites society’s members against wrongdoers, reinforcing the boundary between right and wrong
10
Q
How does crime link to social change?
A
For society to progress, individuals with new ideas must challenge existing norms and values - this is deviance at first
11
Q
Why is crime described as a safety valve?
A
For example, prostitution acts to release men’s sexual frustrations without threatening the nuclear family.
12
Q
Why is crime seen as a warning light?
A
Deviance indicates that a society isn’t functioning properly, so action can be taken to fix it.
13
Q
State one strength of functionalist theory.
A
First to recognize that crime can have positive functions for society
14
Q
State two limitations of functionalist theory.
A
Does not suggest what the right amount of crime is for society to function properly, crime is not functional for all - e.g., victims
15
Q
What is the key idea in Merton’s Strain Theory?
A
Crime is the result of unequal access to society’s goal of wealth
16
Q
What does Merton mean by blocked opportunities?
A
Not all have an equal chance to achieve wealth - this creates strain for working-class people who cannot access wealth legitimately
17
Q
What are the four deviant adaptations to strain?
A
Innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion
18
Q
What is innovation?
A
Accept the goal but find illegal ways to achieve it - utilitarian crimes
19
Q
What is ritualism?
A
Give up striving for success. Plod along in a dead-end job
20
Q
What is retreatism?
A
Reject the goal and means to achieve it. Drop-outs e.g., drunks, vagrants
21
Q
What is rebellion?
A
Reject the goal and means, replacing them with new ones to change society - political radicals and alternative cultures e.g., hippies
22
Q
State two strengths of Merton’s strain theory.
A
Shows how normal and deviant behavior arise from the same goals, explains why working-class crime rates are higher
23
Q
State two limitations of Merton’s strain theory.
A
Ignores crimes of the wealthy, only sees deviance as an individual response, focuses on utilitarian crime only
24
Q
Define non-utilitarian crime
A
Crimes committed without financial gain
25
Define legitimate opportunity structures
A way to work your way up in society while staying within the confines of the law
26
Define illegitimate opportunity structures
A way to work your way up in society within a criminal or deviant network
27
What is the key idea in Cohen's theory?
Crime is a group response to unequal access to society's goal of wealth
28
What does Cohen mean by status frustration?
Working-class boys end up at the bottom of the school's official status hierarchy and feel frustrated and worthless
29
How does Cohen explain subcultures?
Subcultures offer a solution by providing an alternate status hierarchy in which society's values are inverted - they gain status by being deviant
30
What is the key idea in Cloward and Ohlin's explanation of subcultures?
Different neighborhoods give rise to different types of deviant subcultures.
31
How do Cloward and Ohlin explain criminal subcultures?
Criminal subcultures arise in areas where there is a longstanding professional criminal network. They select youths for an 'apprenticeship' in utilitarian crime and a future criminal career.
32
How do Cloward and Ohlin explain conflict subcultures?
Conflict subcultures arise where the only criminal opportunities are within street gangs. Violence is a release for frustration and a source of status earned by winning territory from rival gangs.
33
How do Cloward and Ohlin explain retreatist subcultures?
Retreatist subcultures are made up of dropouts who have failed in both the legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures. They often involve drug use.
34
State two strengths of subcultural theories.
1. They show how subcultures perform a function for their members. 2. They show how different types of neighborhoods give rise to different illegitimate opportunities and subcultures.
35
State two limitations of subcultural theories.
1. They ignore crimes of the wealthy and over-predict working-class crime. 2. They assume everyone starts with mainstream goals and turns to a subculture when they fail to achieve. Actual subcultures are not as clear-cut as Cloward and Ohlin claim.
36
Define label
A name, meaning, or definition attached to a person or act.
37
Define primary deviance
Acts that have not been publicly labeled – usually trivial and uncaught. Offenders don't see themselves as criminal.
38
Define secondary deviance
Results from labeling – people treat the offender solely in terms of their label, and this label becomes their master status.
39
Define the self-fulfilling prophecy
When an offender is labeled, society's reaction pushes them into further deviance. They have lived up to their label.
40
Define media exaggeration
The media make the story about a crime seem worse than it is.
41
Define moral entrepreneur
Someone of high status who publicly calls for a crackdown on crime.
42
Define folk devils
A group or individual who is labeled negatively by society.
43
Define typifications
Ideas (usually held by the police) about what a typical criminal is like.
44
Define social construction
Something that has been made or defined by society rather than occurring naturally.
45
Define determinism
The idea that our behavior is caused by an external force outside of our control – we have no free will.
46
What is interactionism?
Interactionism sees our interactions with each other as based on meanings or labels. Crime and criminals are social constructions.
47
What is labelling theory?
Labelling theory states that no act is deviant or criminal in itself – it only becomes so when others label it as such.
48
What is differential enforcement?
Social control agencies use typifications to label some groups as criminal more than others.
49
How does labelling link to the self-fulfilling prophecy?
When an offender is labeled, society's reaction pushes them into further deviance. They have lived up to their label.
50
What is the deviance amplification spiral?
An attempt to control deviance through a crackdown leads to it increasing rather than decreasing. This leads to greater attempts to control and even more deviance.
51
How do interactionists explain crime statistics?
Interactionists reject the use of statistics compiled by the police because they believe they only measure what the police do (who they arrest) rather than what criminals do (how much crime there actually is).
52
How does labelling link to Young's study on the hippies?
Police attention and labeling led hippies to retreat into closed groups where drug use took over.
53
What interactionist concept does the Mods and Rockers study explain?
The Mods and Rockers study explains the deviance amplification spiral.
54
How does the Mods and Rockers study explain negative labeling?
The Mods and Rockers were negatively labeled as folk devils, which intensified the public's reaction and labeling of them.
55
State two strengths of interactionism and labeling theory.
1. It shows that the law is not a fixed set of rules but socially constructed. 2. It shows how attempts to control can create more deviance.
56
State two limitations of interactionism and labeling theory.
1. It is deterministic and gives offenders victim status. 2. It doesn't explain primary deviance and doesn't address where the power to label comes from.
57
Define structural theory
Structural theory is an explanation that focuses on the way in which society is organized.
58
Define capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system in which there are two classes. The ruling class exploits the working class for profit.
59
Define bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie refers to the ruling class who own the means of production and exploit the working class for profit.
60
Define proletariat
The proletariat refers to the working class who have to sell their labor in order to survive.
61
Define institution
An institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms, such as the law, the education system, the family, etc.
62
Define consumerism
Consumerism refers to a society that values the buying or consuming of goods.
63
Define utilitarian crime
Utilitarian crime refers to crimes committed for financial gain.
64
Define corporate crime
Crime committed by, or on behalf of, a company
65
Define ideology
A set of ideas or beliefs
66
Define criminogenic capitalism
Where capitalism causes crime
67
Define white collar crime
Crime committed by an employee within the workplace
68
Define selective enforcement
When the law is applied differently to different people
69
What are the three key ideas behind Marxist theory?
Inequality, two classes, society's institutions
70
How do Marxists use inequality to explain crime?
Structural theory: the unequal structure of capitalist society shapes behavior including criminality
71
What are the two classes according to Marxists?
Society is divided into two main class groups - Bourgeoisie and Proletariat
72
How do the institutions lead to crime according to Marxists?
All institutions, including the law and criminal justice system, work to support capitalism and keep the working class in their place
73
State four ways that capitalism causes crime?
Exploitation, consumerism, alienation and frustration, greed and the profit motive
74
What is exploitation according to Marxists?
Crime is often the only way to survive for the working class as they live in poverty
75
What is consumerism?
Advertising pressures people into utilitarian crimes to get goods
76
What is alienation and frustration?
Inequality causes people to lash out and commit non-utilitarian crimes
77
What is greed and the profit motive?
Capitalism is a dog-eat-dog system and encourages corporate crimes to gain an advantage
78
What does Chambliss say about law-making?
Laws are made to protect the private property of the rich
79
What is selective law enforcement?
White-collar and corporate crimes of the rich are much less likely to be prosecuted than working-class 'street crimes'
80
What are the three key ideas behind Marxist theory?
Inequality, two classes, society’s institutions
81
How do Marxists use inequality to explain crime?
Structural theory: the unequal structure of capitalist society shapes behavior including criminality
82
What are the two classes according to Marxists?
Society is divided into two main class groups – Bourgeoisie and Proletariat
83
How do the institutions lead to crime according to Marxists?
All institutions including the law and criminal justice system work to support capitalism and keep the working class in their place
84
State four ways that capitalism causes crime?
Exploitation, consumerism, alienation and frustration, greed and the profit motive
85
What is exploitation according to Marxists?
Crime is often the only way to survive for the working class as they live in poverty
86
What is consumerism?
Advertising pressures people into utilitarian crimes to get goods
87
What is alienation and frustration?
Inequality causes people to lash out and commit non-utilitarian crimes
88
What is greed and the profit motive?
Capitalism is a dog-eat-dog system and encourages corporate crimes to gain an advantage
89
What does Chambliss say about law-making?
Laws are made to protect the private property of the rich
90
What is selective law enforcement?
White-collar and corporate crimes of the rich are much less likely to be prosecuted than working-class 'street crimes'
91
How does Carson’s research support selective law enforcement?
Out of 200 companies who had broken safety laws, only 3 were prosecuted
92
What are the four ideological functions of crime and the law?
Conceals inequality of capitalism, selective enforcement, diverts attention from ruling class crime, caring face of capitalism
93
State two strengths of Marxist theory?
Focuses on class and ignores the relationship between crime and other inequalities e.g., race or gender. Over predicts the amount of working class crime - not all poor people turn to crime. Not all capitalist societies have high crime rates
94
State two limitations of Marxist theory.
Focuses on class and ignores the relationship between crime and other inequalities e.g., race or gender. Over predicts the amount of working class crime - not all poor people turn to crime. Not all capitalist societies have high crime rates
95
Define right wing
The view that social inequality is inevitable, natural, normal, or desirable
96
Define conservative
Averse to change or innovation and holding traditional values. Favours competition and meritocracy.
97
Define socialization
Process of learning norms and values
98
Define capable guardian
Someone such as a security guard or police officer who acts as a deterrent to crime
99
Define left wing
Supports social equality and often in opposition to social hierarchy. Wants to support the disadvantaged and reduce inequality.
100
Define socialist
Believes in cooperation and collective ownership. Favours equality and social welfare.
101
Define relative deprivation
Feeling poor or disadvantaged in comparison to those around you
102
Define subcultures
A group within society that has its own set of norms and values that differ from the mainstream
103
Define marginalization
Being on the outside of society
104
Define RCT
Rational Choice Theory
105
Define RAT
Routine Activity Theory
106
What is the political outlook of left realists?
Left wing, socialist. See inequality in capitalist society as the root cause of crime. Crime reduction by making society fairer and more equal.
107
How does relative deprivation cause crime according to left realists?
The media and growing inequality make people unable to afford the lifestyle that is promoted to them. Some turn to crime to gain what they think they should have.
108
How does subculture cause crime according to left realists?
Criminal subcultures share society’s materialistic goals – legitimate opportunities to achieve them are blocked, so they turn to crime.
109
How does marginalisation cause crime according to left realists?
Marginalised groups (e.g. unemployed youths) have no goals or organisations to represent their interests. Their frustration leads them into non-utilitarian crime.
110
State two strengths of left realism.
- Draws attention to importance of poverty, inequality and relative deprivation as causes of crime.
- Draws attention to reality of street crime especially effects on victims from deprived groups.
- Draws attention to reality of street crime especially effects on victims from deprived groups.
111
State two limitations of left realism.
- Doesn’t explain crimes of the powerful, overpredicts working class crime.
- Doesn't account for individual motivations and psychological factors that may contribute to crime.
- Doesn't account for individual motivations and psychological factors that may contribute to crime.
112
What is the political outlook of right realism?
Right wing, conservative. See crime as a growing problem. Best way to reduce it is via control and punishment.
113
How do biological differences cause crime according to right realists?
Some individuals have biological traits which make them more prone to criminality. These traits can include impulsivity, low intelligence, or a genetic predisposition to aggression.
114
How does inadequate socialisation cause crime according to right realists?
The underclass is welfare dependent and does not have the right norms and values. Lone mothers mean boys lack a male role model and turn to gangs.
115
State two strengths of right realism.
- Right realism emphasizes personal responsibility and accountability for criminal behavior.
- It acknowledges the importance of control and punishment as deterrents to crime.
- It acknowledges the importance of control and punishment as deterrents to crime.
116
State two limitations of right realism.
- Overlooks the structural factors and social inequalities that can contribute to crime.
- Tends to focus on street crime and neglects corporate crime and white-collar offenses.
- Tends to focus on street crime and neglects corporate crime and white-collar offenses.
117
What do right realists describe offending as a rational choice?
People weigh up the costs and benefits of committing a crime before deciding to do it. They have free will.
118
What is Felson’s routine activity theory?
For a crime to occur there needs to be a motivated offender, a suitable target, and lack of a capable guardian.
119
Define surveillance.
Close observation, especially of a suspected criminal or criminal target.
120
Define panopticon.
'All-seeing'.
121
Define CCTV.
Closed Circuit Television - security cameras.
122
Define synopticon.
Everybody watches everybody.
123
Define disciplinary power.
Power that is exercised over people, to develop their capacity for self-control, or to encourage them to conform to society’s norms and values.
124
Define self-surveillance.
When people have to regulate their own behaviour because they know they could be being watched.
125
What is Foucault’s key idea?
In today’s society, people engage in self-surveillance. We are also under electronic surveillance. Surveillance has become an increasingly important form of crime control.
126
How does Foucault use the panopticon to explain his theory?
A prison designed so that guards could see all prisoners, but prisoners did not know if they were being watched or not.
127
How does Foucault use self-surveillance to explain his theory?
Prisoners had to assume they were being watched and behave properly just in case.
128
How does Foucault use disciplinary power to explain his theory?
Foucault argues that disciplinary power and self-surveillance now reach every individual.
129
What is meant by actuarial?
Actuarial refers to the assessment and prediction of risks based on statistical data and probability calculations.
130
How did Feeley and Simon link actuarial justice to surveillance?
Actuarial justice aims to predict and prevent future offending, using statistics to reduce crime by compiling profiles of likely offenders.
131
State two strengths of surveillance theories.
- Foucault's work has led to more research into surveillance and disciplinary power.
- Researchers have identified other forms of surveillance such as actuarial justice and profiling.
- Researchers have identified other forms of surveillance such as actuarial justice and profiling.
132
State two limitations of surveillance theories.
- Foucault exaggerates the extent of control exerted through surveillance.
- Surveillance may not change people’s behavior as Foucault claims.
- Surveillance may not change people’s behavior as Foucault claims.
133
Why have sociological theories been criticized?
Sociologists disagree with each other about the causes of crime.
134
Why have sociological theories been accused of overprediction?
Sociological theories don't explain why not every disadvantaged person turns to crime.
135
Why have sociological theories been accused of neglecting biological and psychological factors?
Sociological theories often neglect factors that might explain why one person might turn to crime while another person in the same social position might not.
