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BIO 150 A&P I > Unit 1: Ch 2 (Chemistry) > Flashcards

Unit 1: Ch 2 (Chemistry) Flashcards

1
Q

Acid

A
  • Any proton donor
  • A molecule that releases a proton in water
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2
Q

Activation Energy

A

Pre-set level of energy required to allow for a reaction to go from reactant to product

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3
Q

Active Site

A

Geographic location where an enzyme will allow a reaction to occur

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4
Q

Adhesion & Cohesion

A
  • Adhesion: the tendency of one substance to cling to another
  • Cohesion: the tendency of molecules of the same substance to cling to each other
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5
Q

Adipose Tissue

A
  • Provides thermal insulation and acts as a shock-absorbing cushion for vital organs
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6
Q

Amino Acids

  • Components
  • Bonds
A
  • Components
    • Amino group (NH2)
    • Carboxyl group (COOH)
    • R-group
  • Bonds
    • Peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino group via dehydration synthesis
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7
Q

Amino Group

  • Symbol
  • Bonds
  • Occurs in
A
  • Symbol: -NH2
  • Bonds: Single covalent bonds
  • Occurs in: Amino acids, proteins
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8
Q

Anabolism

A

The sum of all synthesis reactions in the body

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9
Q

Antioxidant

A

A chemical that neutralizes free radicals

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10
Q

Apoenzyme

A

A protein component working with an enzyme

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11
Q

Atomic Mass

A
  • Weight of the Atom
  • Protons + Neutrons = Atomic Mass
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12
Q

Atomic Number

A
  • The number of protons in a nucleus
  • The periodic table is organized by atomic number
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13
Q

Describe atomic structure

A
  • At the center of an atom is the nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons
    • Protons (p+) have a single positive charge
    • Neutrons (n0) have no charge
  • Each proton or neutron weighs approx 1 atomic mass unit, which equals the total number of protons and neutrons
  • Around the nucleus are one or more clouds of electrons
  • Electrons determine the chemical properties of an atom, thereby governing what molecules can exist and what chemical reactions can occur
    • The # of electrons = the # of protons
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14
Q

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

  • Description
  • Components
A
  • Description
    • Nucleotide that occurs in muscle tissue
    • Is used as a source of energy in cellular reactions and in the synthesis of nucleic acids
    • Cells couple the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis with endergonic reactions to harness the energy within the bonds of ATP
  • Components
    • Ribose
    • Adenine
    • Triphosphate
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15
Q

ATPase

A
  • Lowers the energy required to allow for the reaction to occur
  • ATP is broken into ADP and 1 phosphate
  • Follows the law of conservation of mass
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16
Q

Buffers

A
  • A substance that helps keep pH within normal limits
  • Buffers resist pH changes because they can take up excess hydrogen ions (H+) or hydroxide ions (OH-)
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17
Q

Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP)

  • Components
A
  • Components
    • Adenine
    • Monophosphate
    • Ribose
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18
Q

General carbohydrate formula

A

(CH2O)n

n = number of carbons

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19
Q

Describe the following characteristics of carbohydrates

  • Monomers
  • Polymers
  • Elements
  • Structure
  • Function
A
  • Monomer: Monosaccharide
    • Glucose (blood of mammals)
    • Galactose (milk of mammals)
    • Fructose (plants)
  • Polymer: Polysaccharides
    • Glycogen
    • Starch
    • Cellulose
  • Elements: C, H, O
  • Structure:
    • H to O ratio is 2:1
    • The number of carbons usually ranges from 3-7
    • Depending on the number of carbons in the sugar, they also may be known as trioses (3 carbons), pentoses (5 carbons), and or hexoses (6 carbons)
    • Monosaccharides can exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions, they are usually found in ring forms
  • Function
    • Prime energy source
    • Structural/physical support
    • Cell-to-cell recognition
    • Cell identification: allows the immune system to recognize/distinguish cells
    • Forms part of DNA & RNA
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20
Q

Carboxyl Group

  • Symbol
  • Bonds
  • Occurs in
A
  • Symbol: -COOH
  • Bonds: Single covalent bonds
  • Occurs in: Sugars, amino acids, proteins
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21
Q

Catabolism

A

The sum of all decomposition reactions in the body

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22
Q

Chemical Compound

A

Atoms containing two or more elements

Examples: H2O, NaCl, and CO2

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23
Q

Chemical Energy

A

Energy found in the different bonds or chemical structures

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24
Q

Chemical Formula

A
  • An abbreviation of the elements and atoms present in a molecule
  • Two types:
    • Molecular formula: Atoms that joined together (ex: H20)
    • Structural formula: In addition to the above, also shows where and how atoms have bonded together (ex. H-H-O)
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25
Q

Chemical Reaction

  • Description
  • Types of reactions
A
  • Description
    • A process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken
    • Symbolized by a chemical equation that typically shows the reactants on the left, the products on the right, and an arrow pointing from the reactants to the products
  • Types
    • Decomposition
    • Synthesis
    • Exchange reactions
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26
Q

Chemistry

A

The study of matter

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27
Q

Cholesterol

  • Structure
  • Function
A
  • Structure
    • 17 carbons
    • 4 ring structure
  • Function
    • A precursor to other steroids
    • An important component of cell membranes and is required for proper nervous system functions
  • Notes
    • Only about 15% of our cholesterol comes from the diet; the other 85% is internally synthesized, primarily by the liver
    • Humans only obtain dietary cholesterol from foods of animal origin
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28
Q

Coenzyme

A

An organic component working with an enzyme

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29
Q

Cofactor

A

An inorganic chemistry component working with an enzyme

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30
Q

Colloids

  • Description
  • Size
  • Appearance
  • Will particles settle?
  • Will particles pass through membrane?
  • Examples
A
  • Not a uniform mixture
  • Size: Particles range from 1-100 nm
  • Appearance: Often cloudy
  • Will particles settle? No
  • Will particles pass through membrane? No
  • Examples:
    • Proteins in blood
    • Milk protein
    • Gelatin
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31
Q

Compounds

A

Two or more different atoms coming together

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32
Q

Conformation

A

Describes the shape of a protein

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33
Q

Conjugated Carbohydrates

A
  • Formed when carbohydrates attach to other molecules
  • Examples:
    • Glycoprotein: Component of the cell surface coat and mucus
    • Glycolipid: Component of the cell surface coat
    • Proteoglycan: Cell adhesion, lubrication, supportive filler for some tissues and organs
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34
Q

Conjugated Proteins

A

Have a non-amino acid moiety called a prothetic group covalently bound to them

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35
Q

Covalent Bonds

A
  • Form when atoms share one to three pairs of electrons
  • The most common type of bond found in nature
  • Covalent bonds can be single, double, or triple
  • Two types of covalent bonds:
    • polar
    • nonpolar
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36
Q

Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP)

A

Nucleotide formed by the removal of both the second and third phosphate groups from ATP.

Acts as a “second messenger” to activate metabolic effects within the cell.

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37
Q

Decomposition reactions

A

Where a large molecule breaks down into two or more smaller ones.

AB → A + B

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38
Q

Dehydration Synthesis

A
  • When monomers join to create polymers of organic molecules
  • Hydrogen is removed from one monomer and a hydroxyl group (-OH) is removed from another monomer, forming water
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39
Q

Denature/Denaturation

A
  • What the shape of a protein (conformation) is unfolded
  • Its shape and properties change, and it results in a non-functioning protein
  • Proteins can be denatured by exposing them to pH changes (acids or bases) or by exposing them to extreme temperatures (either hot or cold)
  • Example: Frying an egg. Egg white starts out as clear and liquid, the extreme heat changes the egg white to opaque and a rigid texture
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40
Q

Disaccharides

A
  • Maltose: Glucose + Glucose
    • Found in grain plants like wheat & barley and products like beer & malted milk which are made from grains
  • Sucrose: Glucose + Fructose
    • Found in plants especially sugar cane & sugar beets. Sucrose is known as “table sugar” and is used to sweeten foods and beverages
  • Lactose: Glucose + Galactose
    • Found in milk of mammals. Lactose is known as milk sugar
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41
Q

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

  • Description
A
  • Description
    • Constitutes genes
    • Functions as the hereditary material of all living things
    • Double-stranded helix
    • Its monosaccharide is deoxyribose
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42
Q

Eicosanoids

  • Structure
  • Function
A
  • Structure
    • 20-carbons
    • Derived from arachidonic acid (a fatty acid)
    • Includes prostaglandins and leukotrienes
  • Function
    • Hormone-like chemical signals between cells
    • Signaling roles in inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions…
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43
Q

Electrolytes

A
  • Ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting electricity
  • Important for their chemical reactivity and electrical effects
  • Imbalance has effects ranging from muscle crams and brittle bones to cardiac arrest
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44
Q

Electromagnetic energy

A

The kinetic energy of moving “packets” of radiation, called photons

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45
Q

Electron Shell Structure

A
  • Electrons are located in electron shells that surround an atom
  • # of electron shells an atom has depends on the total number of electrons
  • Indicates the average location of electrons
  • Each shell holds a limited number of electrons:
    • Shell 1 holds 2 electrons
    • Shell 2 holds 8 electrons
    • Shell 3 holds 8 electrons
    • Shell 4 holds 8 electrons
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46
Q

Electronegativity

A
  • An atom’s force of attraction to gain an electron.
  • Highly electronegative atoms only need 1 electron to maintain a full valence shell.
  • The exception to this is Hydrogen and Helium because they require a maximum of 2 electrons in the first shell.
  • If atoms bonded together have the same electronegativity, the shared electrons will be equally shared and will become anions.
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47
Q

Electron

A
  • Determines the chemical properties of an atom
  • Found on the periphery, or on the side of an atomic structure
  • Electron shell, which is a more specific way to determine where an electron is housed; or
  • Electron cloud, which is a more general way of showing where an electron is
  • Carry a single negative charge
  • Notated with a lowercase “e”
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48
Q

Electropositivity

A

The tendency of an atom to donate electrons and form positively charged cations

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49
Q

Element

A

The simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties

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50
Q

Emulsion

A

The suspension of one liquid in another, such as oil-and-vinegar salad dressing

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51
Q

Endergonic Reaction

A
  • A reaction in which energy is absorbed
  • This means that the net change in free energy is positive
  • There is more energy in the system at the end of the reaction than at the beginning of it
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52
Q

Energy

A

Capacity to do work

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53
Q

Enzymes

A
  • Enzymes are proteins that decrease the amount of activation energy required in a reaction
  • Not consumed in a chemical reaction
  • Enzyme suffixes end in - ase
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54
Q

Essential & Non-Essential Fatty Acids

A
  • Essential: Body cannot produce it, essential that they are consumed in diet
  • Non-Essential: If not in diet, the body can produce it
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55
Q

Exchange Reaction

A

When two molecules exchange atoms or groups of atoms.

AB + CD → AC + BD

56
Q

Exergonic Reaction

A
  • A reaction that releases free energy
  • Products have less total free energy than the reactants did
  • The change in free energy is negative
  • Can occur spontaneously, without being forced by outside factors
  • Examples: Oxidation, Decomposition, Catabolism
57
Q

Fat-soluble vitamin function

(A, D, E, and K)

A
  • Lipid function
  • Involved in a variety of functions including blood clotting, wound healing, vision, and calcium absorption
58
Q

Fatty Acids

  • Components
  • Structure
  • Types
  • Function
A
  • Components
    • Carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end
    • Methyl group (-CH3) at other end
  • Structure
    • Chain of approx 4 - 24 carbon atoms
  • Types
    • Saturated
    • Unsaturated
  • Lipid function
    • Precursor of triglycerides
    • Source of energy
59
Q

Free energy

A
  • The potential energy available in a system to do useful work.
  • Example: Energy stored in the chemical bonds or organic materials
60
Q

Free radicals

A

Unstable, highly reactive chemical particles with an odd number of electrons.

61
Q

Fructose Formula

62
Q

Functional Groups

A

A specific combination of bonded atoms that always has the same chemical properties and therefore always reacts in the same way

63
Q

5 Functional Groups

A
  1. Amino
  2. Carboxyl
  3. Hydroxyl
  4. Methyl
  5. Phosphate
64
Q

Glycogen formula

65
Q

Guanosine Triphosphate (GTP)

A

Nucleotides involved in energy transfers

66
Q

Heat

A
  • The kinetic energy of molecular motion
  • The temperature of a substance is a measure of rate of this motion, and adding heat to a substance increases molecular motion
67
Q

Hydrogen Bonds

A
  • Attracted to an electronegative atom
  • Form a weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative oxygen or nitrogen in another
  • Do not form molecules but stabilize the three-dimensional shape of molecules
  • Makes water cohesive and adhesive
  • Notated by dotted or broken lines between atoms
68
Q

Hydrolysis Reaction

A
  • Degrades polymers
  • Occurs when the monomers in a polymer separate during a hydrolysis reaction (addition of H2O)
  • The polymer is broken into two components: one part gains a hydrogen atom (H+) and the other gains a hydroxyl molecule (OH–) from a split water molecule
69
Q

Hydroxl Group

  • Symbol
  • Bonds
  • Occurs in
A
  • Symbol: -OH
  • Bonds: Single covalent bond
  • Occurs in: Sugars, alcohol
70
Q

Induced Fit Hypothesis

A

An enzyme will be fit to or moved with a substrate to allow for a chemical reaction to occur

71
Q

Ionic bond

A
  • The attraction of a cation to an anion creates an ion
  • One atom must give up or take on an electron
72
Q

Ions & Ionization

A
  • Charged particles with unequal numbers of protons and electrons
    • Ions: form because elements with 1-3 valence electrons tend to give them up, and those with 4-7 electrons tend to gain more
    • Ionization: If an atom of the first kind is exposed to an atom of the second, electrons may transfer from one to the other and turn both of them into ions
73
Q

Isomer

A

Two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula (shape/weights)

74
Q

Isotope

A

Two or more elements that are chemically similar (same number of protons), but have different weights (number of neutrons)

75
Q

Kinetic Energy

A

Energy of motion, energy that is doing work.

76
Q

Law of Conservation of Energy

A

Energy is not created or destroyed, it is redistributed

77
Q

List the lesser elements of the human body

A
  • Chlorine (Cl)
  • Iron (Fe)
  • Magnesium (Mg)
  • Potassium (K)
  • Sodium (Na)
  • Sulfur (S)
78
Q

Lipids

  • Description
  • Structure
  • Classifications
  • Primary types in humans
A
  • Description
    • Have a full valence shell/octet
    • Hydrophobic/nonpolar bonds
  • Structure
    • C, H, O (P in phospholipids)
    • Greater than 2:1 ratio of H to O
  • Classifications
    • Saturated
    • Unsaturated
    • Polyunsaturated
    • Oils & Fats
    • Non-essential fatty acids
    • Essential fatty acids
  • Primary Types
    • Fatty acids
    • Triglycerides
    • Phospholipids
    • Eicosanoids
    • Steroids
79
Q

List the major elements of the human body

(98.5% of the human body)

A
  • Carbon (C)
  • Calcium (Ca)
  • Hydrogen (H)
  • Nitrogen (N)
  • Oxygen (O)
  • Phosphorus (P)
80
Q

Matter

A

Anything that takes up physical space and has mass

81
Q

Methyl Group

  • Symbol
  • Bonds
  • Occurs in
A
  • Symbol: -CH3
  • Bonds: Single covalent bonds
  • Occurs in:
    • Steroids
    • Oils
    • Amino acids
    • Fats
82
Q

Milliequivalents per Liter (mEq/L)

A
  • Used to express electrolyte concentrations
  • It takes into account the millimolar concentration of a solute and the electrical charge on its particles
83
Q

Mitochondria

A
  • Organelles that produce ATP, the main energy molecule used by a cell
  • Sometimes referred to as “the powerhouse of the cell”
84
Q

Mitosis

A
  • Formation of a new cell
  • How multi-celled organisms grow larger & repair damaged tissues
  • A process by which a cell segregates its duplicated DNA, ultimately dividing its nucleus into two
85
Q

Mixture

A
  • Consists of substances that are physically blended but not chemically combined
  • Each substance retains its own chemical properties
86
Q

Molarity

A
  • The number of moles of solute per liter of solution
  • This not only reflects the weight of the solute in the solution, but the number of molecules per volume, so molarity is often the most meaningful measure of concentration
87
Q

Mole

A

One mole of a chemical is the number of grams equal to its molecular weight

88
Q

Molecular Weight (MW)

A

The sum of the atomic weights of an atom

89
Q

Molecules

A

Two or more of the same atoms united by a chemical bond

90
Q

Compare Monomers & Polymers

A
  • Monomers vs Polymers:
    • A single molecule vs many molecules
    • Smaller molecular weight vs larger
    • Lower boiling point vs higher
    • Less mechanical strength vs more
  • They also have different chemical and physical properties. Example:
    • Glucose (monomer) is an oxidizing sugar, soluble in water, that has a sweet taste. Starch (polymer) of glucose is a non-oxidizing sugar, partially soluble in water, and doesn’t have a sweet taste
91
Q

Monosaccharides

A
  • Glucose
    • Blood sugar
    • The energy source for most cells
  • Galactose
    • Converted to glucose and metabolized
  • Fructose
    • Fruit sugar
    • Converted to glucose and metabolized
  • Ribose
  • Deoxyribose
92
Q

Neutrons

A
  • Does not carry a charge
  • Affect the atomic mass and radioactive properties of atoms
  • Notated with a lowercase “n”
93
Q

Nucleic Acids

  • Monomer(s)
  • Polymer(s)
  • Elements
  • Bond Type
A
  • Monomers: Nucleotides
  • Polymers: DNA & RNA
  • Elements: C, H, O, N, P
  • Bonds: Polar covalent
94
Q

Components of a Nucleotide

A
  1. Monosaccharide
  2. Nitrogen base
  3. Phosphorus group
95
Q

Nucleotides

  • Components
  • Types
A
  • Components
    • Nitrogenous base
    • Sugar
    • 1+ Phosphate group
  • Types (Difference is in the nitrogen base)
    • Adenine (A)
    • Guanine (G)
    • Cytosine (C)
    • Thymine (T): found only in DNA
    • Uracil (U): found only in RNA
96
Q

Differences between

organic & inorganic chemistry

A
  • Different weights in the molecules
  • Different bonds present
    • Organic: Dbl/triple covalent, polar/nonpolar, hydrogen
    • Inorganic: Ionic, single covalent
  • Examples
    • Organic: Proteins, carbohydrates
    • Inorganic: Salts
97
Q

Organic Chemistry

A
  • The study of carbon
  • Focuses on macromolecules that are important for homeostasis
  • Carbon can form 4 single covalent bonds which allow many large structures to form
98
Q

List the 4 primary organic compounds

A
  1. Carbohydrates
  2. Lipids
  3. Nucleic acids
  4. Proteins
99
Q

Oxidation

A

Any chemical reaction in which a molecule gives up electrons and releases energy.

An exergonic reaction in which electrons are removed from a reactant. Electrons may be removed one or two at a time and may be removed in the form of hydrogen atoms.

100
Q

Peptide Names

A
  • Peptide (1)
  • Dipeptides (2)
  • Tripeptides (3)
  • Oligopeptides (3 - 50)
  • Polypeptides (Many)
  • Proteins
101
Q

Percentage

A
  • Weight of solute as a percentage of solution volume; or the volume of a liquid as a percentage of total solution volume
102
Q

Periodic Table

A
  • Blueprint for all chemistry
  • Symbols represent an element
  • All elements contain their own protons, neutrons, weight, electrons, etc.
  • Inherent organization to the table. Atomic number (protons) increase from left to right and top to bottom
103
Q

pH scale

A
  • Scale of 1 - 14
  • A solution with a pH of 7.0 is neutral, solutions with pH below 7 are acidic, and solutions with pH above 7 are basic
  • The lower the pH value, the more hydrogen ions a solution has and the more acidic it is
  • A change of one whole number on the scale represents a 10-fold change in H+ concentration
  • Power or potential of hydrogen (pH)
104
Q

Phosphate Group

  • Symbol
  • Bonds
  • Occurs in
A
  • Symbol: -H2PO4
  • Bonds:
    • Single & double covalent bonds,
    • Where P and O form by a double covalent bond
  • Occurs in: Nucleic acids, ATP
105
Q

Phospholipids

  • Elements
  • Structure
  • Function
A
  • Elements: C, H, O, P
  • Structure: Amphipathic
    • Together, they form a shape like a clothespin
    • 1 phosphate “head” is hydrophilic
    • 2 fatty acid “tails” are hydrophobic
  • Function
    • Structural foundation of cell membranes
106
Q

Polar & Nonpolar Bonds

A
  • Polar covalent bonds form when there is unequal sharing of electrons.
    • Results in the formation of an Electropositive ion that has partial + charge and an Electronegative ion that has partial – charge
    • Hydrophilic; dissolves in water
  • Nonpolar covalent bonds form when there is equal sharing of electrons
    • It is the strongest of all bonds
    • Hydrophobic
107
Q

Polymer

A

A polymer is a macromolecule consisting of repeating units that represent the monomers, while monomers are building blocks of polymers.

108
Q

Polysaccharides

A
  • Cellulose
    • Structural polysaccharide of plants
    • Dietary fiber (unable to digest)
  • Starch
    • Energy storage in plant cells
    • Energy source in the human diet
  • Glycogen
    • Energy storage in animal cells (liver, muscle, brain, uterus, vagina)
109
Q

Polyunsaturation Fatty Acids

A
  • Multiple double covalent C bonds
  • Most can be synthesized by the human body, but a few called essential fatty acids must be obtained from the dyes because humans cannot synthesize them
110
Q

Potential energy

A

The energy that is contained in an object because of its position or internal state, but that is not doing work at the time.

111
Q

Primary Structure

A

Sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds

112
Q

Proteins

  • Monomer
  • Polymer
  • Elements
  • Structure Types
  • Function
A
  • Monomer: Amino Acids
  • Polymer: Polypeptides
  • Elements: C, H, O, N (some have S)
  • Structure Types:
    • Primary Structure
    • Secondary Structure
    • Tertiary Structure
    • Quaternary Structure
  • Function
    • Act as the thread that allows for cell cohesion which allows for a tissue to be formed
    • Structure: Keratin, collagen
    • Communication: Hormones and other cell-to-cell communications
    • Membrane transport: Form channels in cell membranes
    • Catalysis: Enzymes
    • Recognition and protection: Glycoproteins
    • Movement: Molecular motors
    • Cell adhesion: Bind cells together
113
Q

Proteoglycans

A
  • Proteoglycans are macromolecules in which the carbohydrate component is dominant and a peptide or protein forms a smaller component
  • Create gels that hold cells and tissues together, form a gelatinous filler, etc
114
Q

Proton

A
  • A subatomic particle that has a single positive charge
  • Guide the atomic number, which gives the periodic table its organization
  • Notated with a lowercase “p”
115
Q

Quaternary Structure

A
  • Association of 2+ polypeptide chains (subunits) with each other
  • Example: Hemoglobin (found in the blood) is an iron-containing protein that binds oxygen molecules. It contains four subunits: two alpha subunits and two beta subunits
116
Q

Radioisotopes

A
  • Emit radiation
  • The process of decay is called radioactivity
117
Q

Reaction rates

A
  • The amount of time it will take for a reaction to occur
  • Variables:
    • Concentration
    • Temperature
    • Catalysts (inorganic)
    • Enzymes (organic)
118
Q

Reduction

A

An endergonic reaction in which electrons are donated to a reactant.

119
Q

Reversible Reactions

A
  • Can go in either direction under different circumstances.
  • They follow the law of mass action: They proceed from the reactants in greater quantity to the substances with the lesser quantity.
  • They exist in a state of equilibrium, in which the ratio of products to reactants is stable.
  • CO2 + H2O ⇔ H2CO3 ⇔ HCO3 + H
120
Q

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

  • Description
  • Components
A
  • Description
    • Converts the genetic code from DNA into proteins to carry out cellular functions
    • Synthesizes proteins
    • Messenger RNA
    • Polymer of nucleic acid
    • Its monosaccharide is ribose
    • Single-stranded
  • Components
    • 5 carbon backbone
    • Phosphate group
    • Nitrogen base
121
Q

Salts

A

Require the dissociation of an anion and a cation

122
Q

Saturated Fatty Acid

A
  • Has as much hydrogen as it can carry without exceeding 4 covalent bonds per carbon
  • It is “saturated” with hydrogen
123
Q

Secondary Structure

A
  • Formed by hydrogen bonds
  • It is the coiling or folding of a polypeptide chain that gives the protein its 3-D shape
    • Alpha (α) helix: Resembles a coiled spring and is secured by hydrogen bonding in the polypeptide chain
    • Beta (β) pleated sheet: Appears to be folded or pleated and is held together by hydrogen bonding between polypeptide units of the folded chain that lie adjacent to one another
124
Q

Solution

  • Description
  • Size
  • Appearance
  • Will particles settle?
  • Will particles pass through membrane?
  • Examples
A
  • Has two parts, is a solute and a solvent
  • Size: < 1 nm
  • Appearance: Clear
  • Will particles settle? No
  • Will particles pass through membrane? Yes
  • Examples:
    • Glucose in blood
    • O2 in water
    • Saline
125
Q

Steroid

  • Elements
  • Structure
  • Function
A
  • Elements: C, H, O
  • Structure
    • A lipid with 17 of its C atoms arranged in 4 rings
    • Each ring differs by the arrangement of the atoms and the type of functional groups attached to them
  • Function
    • Cholesterol is the “parent” steroid from which the other steroids are synthesized
    • Others include cortisol, progesterone, estrogens, testosterone, and bile acids
    • These differ from each other in the location of double covalent C bonds within the rings and in the functional groups attached to the rings

Key Points:

  • Steroids are lipids because they are hydrophobic and insoluble in water, but they do not resemble lipids since they have a structure composed of four fused rings.
  • Cholesterol is the most common steroid and is the precursor to vitamin D, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, aldosterone, cortisol, and bile salts.
  • Cholesterol is a component of the phospholipid bilayer and plays a role in the structure and function of membranes.
  • Steroids are found in the brain and alter electrical activity in the brain.
  • Because they can tone down receptors that communicate messages from neurotransmitters, steroids are often used in anesthetic medicines
126
Q

Substrate

A

The actual substance an enzyme is going to convert from a reactant to a product

127
Q

Suspension

  • Size
  • Appearance
  • Will particles settle?
  • Will particles pass through membrane?
  • Examples
A
  • Able to settle; separates by molecular weight
  • Size: > 100 nm
  • Appearance: Cloudy-Opaque
  • Will particles settle? Yes
  • Will particles pass through membrane? No
  • Examples:
    • Blood cells
    • Cornstarch in water
    • Fats in blood
128
Q

Synthesis Reaction

A
  • Where two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one
  • A + B → AB
129
Q

Tertiary Structure

A
  • Folding and coiling due to interactions among R groups and surrounding water
130
Q

List the trace elements

of the human body

A
  • Chromium (Cr)
  • Cobalt (Co)
  • Copper (Cu)
  • Fluorine (F)
  • Iodine (I)
  • Manganese (Mn)
  • Molybdenum (Mo)
  • Selenium (Se)
  • Silicon (Si)
  • Tin (Sn)
  • Vanadium (V)
  • Zinc (Zn)
131
Q

Trans & Cis Fatty Acids

A
  • Trans: Opposite side of a double bond; results in a structure with a small dent
  • Cis: Same side of a double covalent bond; results in a structure with a large dent (like a V). Preferred because they’re harder to accumulate in large populations
132
Q

Triglyceride

  • Structure
  • Function
A
  • Structure
    • Glycerol (3-carbon alcohol) linked to 3 fatty acids
    • Each bond between a fatty acid and glycerol is formed by dehydration synthesis
    • Lipids are liquid at room temperature (oils)
    • Aka triacylglycerols & neutral fats
  • Lipid function
    • Energy storage
    • Thermal insulation
    • Filling space
    • Binding organs together
    • Cushioning organs
133
Q

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

A
  • Some carbon atoms are joined by double covalent bonds
  • Each could potentially share one pair of electrons with another H atom instead of the adjacent carbon, so H could be added to this molecule
134
Q

Valence Shell

A
  • The outermost shell of an atom
  • Determines the bonding properties of an atom
    • Chemically active atoms will bond with other elements because their valence shell is not filled
    • Chemically inactive elements will not bond with other elements because their valence shell is filled
135
Q

Van der Waals Forces

A
  • Important in protein folding, the binding of proteins to each other and to other molecules
  • They are weak, brief attractions between neutral atoms
    • When electrons orbit a nucleus, they don’t maintain a uniform distribution but show random fluctuations in density
    • If the electrons briefly crowd toward one side of an atom, they render that side slightly negative and the other side slightly positive for a moment. If another atom is close enough, the second atom responds with disturbances in its own electron cloud.
    • Oppositely charged regions of the two atoms then attract each other for a very brief moment
136
Q

What is structurally important about water?

A
  • Hydrogen atoms are joined by polar covalent bonds
  • Universal solvent
  • Qualities supporting life:
    • Solvency
    • Lubricant
    • Thermal stability
    • Chemical reactivity
137
Q

Weight per Volume

A

Weight of a solute in a given volume of solution

BIO 150 A&P I (25 decks)

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