Unit 1: Ch 1 (Intro to A&P)

Question 1

What are the categories of anatomy?

Answer 1

1. Size
2. Region (Regional Anatomy)
3. System (Systemic Anatomy)

Question 2

What is gross anatomy?

Answer 2

• Gross anatomy is when a structure can be seen with the naked eye, whether by surface observation, radiology, or dissection
• For example, when a physician makes an assessment while viewing a patient’s foot with the naked eye, the physician is performing gross anatomy

Question 3

What is microscopic anatomy?

Answer 3

• Microscopic anatomy is a subdiscipline of the size category of anatomy
• It applies to structures that cannot be seen with the naked eye, and require a microscope or other piece of equipment/tool to view
• For example, a microscope is required to view cells. Cytology, the study of cells, utilizes microscopic anatomy to view structures that cannot be seen with the naked eye

Question 4

How is anatomy studied?

Answer 4

• Inspection
• Palpation
• Auscultation
• Percussion
• Dissection
• Imaging

Question 5

• Describe Inspection

Answer 5

• The simplest form of anatomy study
• Looking at a body’s appearance, as in performing a physical examination or making a clinical diagnosis from surface appearance

Question 6

Describe Palpation

Answer 6

• Feeling a structure with the hands, such as palpating a swollen lymph node or taking a pulse.

Question 7

Describe Auscultation

Answer 7

Listening to the natural sounds made by the body, such as heart and lung sounds

Question 8

Describe Percussion

Answer 8

The examiner taps on the body, feels for abnormal resistance, and listens to the emitted sound for signs of abnormalities such as pockets of fluid, air, or scar tissue

Question 9

Describe Dissection

Answer 9

• To cut
• Cutting and separating tissues to reveal their relationships
• Lecture note: Opportunity to take an instrument and start at the most superficial, or outside layers of the human organism and be able to view deeper/more internal structures

Question 10

What is Comparative Anatomy?

Answer 10

• The study of multiple species in order to examine similarities, differences, evolutionary trends, and to understand how different species have solved problems of life such as water balance, respiration, and reproduction.
• It is often the basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures. Lecture note: Where animals are used as a model for how human structures are presented. Clinical trials and research, drugs are initially tested on animal population, then humans

Question 11

Describe Imaging

Answer 11

• Method of viewing the inside of the body without surgery.
• Lecture note: Imaging is important for seeing if anatomical structures are present and if they are in the correct position

Question 12

Why are A&P studied together?

Answer 12

• A&P are presented together because the structures are going to perform the functions, and the functions are going to require the structures, they are interrelated. And they are interdependent on each other.

Question 13

Distinguish among the subspecialties of physiology

Answer 13

• Neurophysiology is the study of the function of the nervous system
• Endocrinology is the study of hormones
• Immunology is the study of the immune system
• Pathophysiology is the study of diseases, specifically the processes or functions of diseases.

Question 14

Neurophysiology

Answer 14

• Study of the nervous system

Question 15

Endocrinology

Answer 15

• Study of the hormones, which are chemical messengers that allow for instructions to be sent from one part of the body to another

Question 16

Immunology

Answer 16

• Study of the immune system which is our body’s natural defenses to help prevent infection or disease

Question 17

Pathophysiology

Answer 17

• Study of diseases, specifically the processes or functions of diseases

Question 18

What is meant by “levels of structural organization?”

Answer 18

• The levels of structural organization is a hierarchy
• Requires that two or more structures with a common function be joined to create the next level within the hierarchy
• If one level of the hierarchy is jeopardized, any superior level on that hierarchy is also affected

Question 19

List the levels in the Hierarchy of Complexity/Structural Organization (from least to greatest complexity)

Answer 19

1. Atom (smallest)
2. Molecule
3. Macromolecule
4. Organelle
5. Cell
6. Tissue
7. Organ
8. Organ System
9. Organism (largest)

Question 20

Atom

Answer 20

• The least complex level begins with the atom
• Atoms are the smallest particles that contain unique chemical identities.

Question 21

Molecule

Answer 21

• When two or more atoms with a common structure and function form, a molecule is formed
• Molecules include carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins

Question 22

Macromolecule

Answer 22

• Macromolecules are the largest molecules, which include proteins, DNA and fats

Question 23

Organelle

Answer 23

• When two or more macromolecules with a common structure and function come together, an organelle is formed
• Organelles are microscopic structures that carry out individual functions

Question 24

Cytology

Answer 24

• The study of cells

Question 25

Cell

Answer 25

• When two or more organelles with a common structure and function join, a cell is formed
• Living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells, and all living structures must have cells
• A cell is the smallest unit that can perform all the basic functions of life
• A cell is enclosed in a plasma membrane composed of lipids and proteins. Most cells have one nucleus, an organelle that contains its DNA

Question 26

Tissue

Answer 26

• When two or more cells with a common structure and function come together, a tissue is formed
• Tissues are a group of cells that form a discrete region of an organ and perform a specific function
• Histology is the study of tissues

Question 27

List the 4 basic tissue types

Answer 27

• Connective
• Epithelial
• Muscular
• Nervous

Question 28

Organ

Answer 28

• When two or more tissues with a common structure and function join, an organ is created
• Organs have a specific function and have visible anatomical boundaries
• Lecture note: Most organs and higher levels of structure are within the domain of gross anatomy. However, there are organs within organs that are only visible with a microscope (i.e. skin)

Question 29

Organ System

Answer 29

• When two or more organs with a common structure and function join, an organ system is formed
• The organs within an organ system are usually interconnected. For example, the skin, hair, nails, and cutaneous gland compose the integumentary system.

Question 30

Organism

Answer 30

• When two or more organ systems with a common structure and function come together
• Organisms are the most complex level in the hierarchy and result in a complete individual being formed

Question 31

List the Characteristics of Life (Basic Life Processes)

Answer 31

1. Cellular Composition
2. Development
3. Homeostasis
4. Metabolism
5. Reproduction
6. Responsiveness & Movement

Question 32

Metabolism

Answer 32

• The sum of all chemical reactions occurring in the body or all the chemical reactions that occur in the body
• Anabolism + Catabolism = Metabolism
• Lecture Note: Living things take in molecules from the environment and chemically change them into molecules that form their own structures, control their physiology, or provide them with energy

Question 33

Anabolism

Answer 33

• When you take smaller molecules and join them together to make a larger molecule (deals with getting bigger)

Question 34

Catabolism

Answer 34

• Taking a large structure and physically breaking it down into smaller structures
• It is the opposite of anabolism because it deals with getting smaller. Think of chewing or cutting away a large molecule into smaller pieces.

Question 35

Cellular Composition

Answer 35

• Living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells
• All living structures must have cells

Question 36

Responsiveness & Movement

Answer 36

• Responsiveness
  
  • The ability to sense and react to stimuli (changes in the environment)
  • Occurs at all levels from the single cell to the entire body, and it characterizes all living things from bacteria to organisms
  • Example: eyes are responsive to light, so the stimuli for eyes is light
• Movement
  
  • Physically being able to start in one location and end in another location, depending on what structures we’re talking about
  • This can occur at the gross or microscopic level
  • Most living organisms are capable of self-propelled movement, and all organisms and cells are at least capable of moving matter internally

Question 37

Development

Answer 37

• Any change in form or function over the lifetime of the organism.
• In most organisms, it involves two major processes: Differentiation & Growth
  
  • Differentiation: the transformation of cells with no specialized function into cells that are committed to a particular task
  • Growth: an increase in size

Question 38

Reproduction

Answer 38

• All living organisms can produce copies of themselves, thus passing their genes on to offspring (or progeny)

Question 39

Homeostasis

Answer 39

• The body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions.
• Lecture notes: Homeostasis is considered dynamic because it is constantly changing

Question 40

Feedback Loops

Answer 40

• Feedback loops are one way to maintain homeostasis.
• They are cyclical in nature, meaning that they are constantly moving and constantly occurring.
• 3 parts
  
  • Receptor: A structure that senses a change in the body. All receptors are able to receive information about the body, whether external or internal receptors and then provide information to the Integrating/Control Center
  • Integrating or Control Center: A structure that senses a change in the body. All receptors are able to receive information about the body, whether external or internal receptors and then provide information to the Integrating/Control Center
  • Effector: The cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action. The Effector will do the instruction, or perform the instruction that the Integrating/Control Center senses. After the instruction is completed the receptor will receive new information about the organism. And the loop continues.
• Lecture note: This helps provide homeostasis since the organism is not going to be the same in the morning, as it is in the afternoon, as it is in the evening. This is true of hormone levels, you may be more alert and awake at certain times of the day.

Question 41

Negative Feedback Loop

Answer 41

• Process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that negate or reverse it. By maintaining stability, negative feedback is the key mechanism for maintaining health.
• Characteristics
  
  • Most common
  • Same intensity at the Effector
  • “Shut off” by an internal stimulus
• Lecture note: When you have a negative feedback loop, you are going to get the same intensity or instruction for the Effector from the Integrating/Control Center. Every time that you move through that feedback loop you will also see that you are going to stop creating a change when you are shutting off that feedback loop, by something internal. Example: When body temperature is too high, the Receptor sends a message to the Control Center which sends an action message to the Effector, which completes the action.

Question 42

Positive Feedback Loop

Answer 42

• A self-amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to even greater change in the same direction, rather than producing the corrective effects of negative feedback
• Characteristics
  
  • Less common, but just as important
  • Increases intensity at the Effector
  • “Shut off” by an external stimulus
• Lecture note: Often associated with more immersion types of situations. Unlike negative feedback loops, you will see that a positive feedback loop increases its intensity at the Effector. Every time it goes through a feedback loop (until homeostasis is maintained), it will increase the intensity of the instruction. Example: When it is time to birth a child. The Receptor sends a message to begin contractions to the Control Center, contraction action sent to Effector, contractions begin. If birth does not occur, the cycle is repeated with the message/action to increase contraction strength. Loop continues until the child exits the body.

Question 43

Dynamic Equilibrium

Answer 43

• The internal state of the body in which there is a certain set point or average value for a given variable and conditions fluctuate slightly around this point (ie body temperature)

Question 44

Explain the difference between anatomy and physiology

Answer 44

• Anatomy is the study of structures. It identifies what a structure is and where it is located within an organism.
• Physiology is the study of function. It describes how a structure functions or works, and why it works in a particular way

Question 45

What is regional anatomy?

Answer 45

• Regional anatomy refers to regions where a structure is located. For example, the axial region includes the head, neck, and trunk.
• The appendicular region includes the upper extremities and lower extremities.
• Regions may be singular (such as the head and neck, as the body only has one of them) or bilateral, meaning that they are found on both sides of the body (such as the brachial region which is a part of the upper extremities).

Question 46

What is systemic anatomy?

Answer 46

• Systemic anatomy refers to organ systems
• There are 11 organ systems in the human body
• An organ system is formed when there are two or more organs with a unique collective function
• For example, the bones, cartilages, and ligaments, compose the skeletal system. Organs that form an organ system must have a common structure and function.